Methods and devices for forming nanostructure monolayers and devices including such monolayers

ABSTRACT

Methods for forming or patterning nanostructure arrays are provided. The methods involve formation of arrays on coatings comprising nanostructure association groups, patterning using resist, and/or use of devices that facilitate array formation. Related devices for forming nanostructure arrays are also provided, as are devices including nanostructure arrays (e.g., memory devices).

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a divisional of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/148,001, filed Jun. 7, 2005, entitled “METHODS AND DEVICES FOR FORMING NANOSTRUCTURE MONOLAYERS AND DEVICES INCLUDING SUCH MONOLAYERS” by David L. Heald et al., which claims priority to and benefit of the following prior provisional patent applications: U.S. Ser. No. 60/671,134, filed Apr. 13, 2005, entitled “METHODS AND DEVICES FOR FORMING NANOSTRUCTURE MONOLAYERS AND DEVICES INCLUDING SUCH MONOLAYERS” by David L. Heald, et al., U.S. Ser. No. 60/578,236, filed Jun. 8, 2004, entitled “POST-DEPOSITION ENCAPSULATION OF NANOCRYSTALS: COMPOSITIONS, DEVICES AND SYSTEMS INCORPORATING SAME” by Jeffery A. Whiteford et al., and U.S. Ser. No. 60/632,570, filed Nov. 30, 2004, entitled “POST-DEPOSITION ENCAPSULATION OF NANOSTRUCTURES: COMPOSITIONS, DEVICES AND SYSTEMS INCORPORATING SAME” by Jeffery A. Whiteford et al. Each of these applications is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety for all purposes.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

This invention relates primarily to the field of nanotechnology. More specifically, the invention pertains to methods and devices for forming nanostructure arrays, e.g., monolayer arrays, e.g., of predetermined size and/or at predetermined positions, and to devices (e.g., memory devices) including such nanostructure arrays.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Monolayers of nanostructures (e.g., quantum dots) can serve as components of a variety of optoelectronic devices such as LEDs and memory devices (see, e.g. U.S. Pat. No. 6,586,785 to Flagan et al. entitled “Aerosol silicon nanoparticles for use in semiconductor device fabrication”). Methods for producing such monolayers include growing quantum dots in situ on a solid by molecular beam epitaxy, and exploiting phase-segregation between aliphatic surfactants on quantum dots and aromatic conjugated organic materials deposited on the dots (Coe et al. (2002) “Electroluminescence from single monolayers of nanocrystals in molecular organic devices” Nature 450:800-803). However, the former technique is difficult to scale up to form large numbers of monolayers, and the latter technique produces a layer of nanostructures embedded in or disposed on a thick organic matrix whose presence is undesirable in many device fabrication processes.

Methods for simply and reproducibly forming nanostructure monolayers are thus desirable. Among other aspects, the present invention provides such methods. A complete understanding of the invention will be obtained upon review of the following.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

Methods for forming or patterning nanostructure arrays, e.g., ordered or disordered monolayer arrays, are described. The methods involve formation of arrays on coatings comprising nanostructure association groups, patterning using resist, and/or use of devices that facilitate array formation. The arrays are optionally formed at predetermined positions and/or have predetermined dimensions. Devices related to the methods are also provided, as are devices including nanostructure arrays. For example, in one aspect, the invention provides memory devices including small monolayer arrays of nanostructures.

One general class of embodiments provides methods for forming a nanostructure array. In the methods, a first layer is provided and coated with a composition comprising a nanostructure association group, to provide a coated first layer. A population of nanostructures is deposited on the coated first layer, whereby the nanostructures associate with the nanostructure association group. Any nanostructures which are not associated with the nanostructure association group are removed, whereby a monolayer array of nanostructures remains associated with the coated first layer.

The first layer can comprise essentially any desired material, including, but not limited to, a dielectric material such as an oxide (e.g., a metal oxide, silicon oxide, hafnium oxide, or alumina (Al₂O₃), or a combination of such oxides) or a nitride. The first layer is optionally disposed on a substrate, e.g., a substrate comprising a semiconductor. In one class of embodiments, the first layer has a thickness of between about 1 nm and about 10 nm, e.g., between 3 and 4 nm. The substrate can include a source region, a drain region, and a channel region between the source and drain regions and underlying the monolayer array of nanostructures, and the methods include disposing a control dielectric layer on the monolayer array of nanostructures and disposing a gate electrode on the control dielectric layer, thus incorporating the nanostructure array into a transistor.

The methods can be used to form multiple nanostructure arrays on the same surface. Thus, in one/class of embodiments, two or more discrete regions of the first layer are coated with the composition (e.g., 10 or more, 50 or more, 100 or more, 1000 or more, 1×10⁴ or more, 1×10⁶ or more, 1×10⁹ or more, 1×10¹⁰ or more, 1×10¹¹ or more, or 1×10¹² or more). Each region occupies a predetermined position on the first layer. Two or more discrete monolayer arrays of nanostructures thus remain associated with the coated first layer after deposition of the population of nanostructures on the coated regions of the first layer and removal of nanostructures not associated with the nanostructure association group.

In one aspect, the nanostructure association group interacts with a surface of the nanostructures. In one exemplary class of embodiments, the nanostructure association group comprises a thiol group. The coated first layer can thus comprise, e.g., a self-assembled monolayer comprising a thiol compound. The composition can comprise, for example, a mercaptoalkyltrichlorosilane, a mercaptoalkyltrimethoxysilane, or a mercaptoalkyltriethoxysilane, e.g., in which the alkyl group comprises between 3 and 18 carbons (e.g., 12-mercaptododecyltrimethoxysilane). The composition optionally comprises a mixture of two or more different compounds. For example, the composition can include a mixture of a long chain mercaptosilane (e.g., a mercaptoalkyltrichlorosilane, a mercaptoalkyltrimethoxysilane, or a mercaptoalkyltriethoxysilane, where the alkyl group comprises between 8 and 18 carbons) and a short chain mercaptosilane (e.g.; a mercaptoalkyltrichlorosilane, a mercaptoalkyltrimethoxysilane, or a mercaptoalkyltriethoxysilane, where the alkyl group comprises 8 or fewer carbons), where the alkyl group in the long chain mercaptosilane comprises at least one more carbon than does the alkyl group in the short chain mercaptosilane. In his example, the ratio of the long and short chain mercaptosilanes can be varied to tailor the surface presented to the nanostructures. For example, the long and short chain mercaptosilanes can be present at a molar ratio of between about 1:10 and about 1:10,000 long chain mercaptosilane to short chain mercaptosilane (e.g., a molar ratio of about 1:100 or 1:1000).

The nanostructures are optionally associated with a surfactant or other surface ligand. In one class of embodiments, each of the nanostructures comprises a coating comprising a ligand associated with a surface of the nanostructure, for example, a ligand comprising a silsesquioxane.

In one aspect, each of the nanostructures comprises a coating comprising a ligand associated with a surface of the nanostructure and the nanostructure association group interacts with the ligand. In some embodiments, the ligand comprises a silsesquioxane.

In one class of embodiments, the interaction between the ligand and the nanostructure association group is noncovalent. The composition can comprise, for example, 3-aminopropyltriethoxysilane (APTES), dodecyltrichlorosilane, octadecyltrichlorosilane, dodecyltriethoxysilane, or octadecyltriethoxysilane.

In another class of embodiments, the nanostructure association group forms a covalent bond with the ligand. The composition is optionally photoactivatable, such that the covalent bond between the ligand and the nanostructure association group is formed only upon exposure to light. In such embodiments, the methods include exposing one or more discrete regions of the coated first layer, each of which occupies a predetermined position on the coated first layer, to light (e.g., two or more, 10 or more, 50 or more, 100 or more, 1000 or more, 1×10⁴ or more, 1×10⁶ or more, 1×10⁹ or more, 1×10¹⁰ or more, 1×10¹¹ or more, or 1×10¹² or more). A large number of photoactivatable compounds are known in the art and can be adapted to the practice of the present invention. For example, the composition can include a phenyl azide group, which when photoactivated can form a covalent bond with, e.g., a silsesquioxane ligand comprising a coating associated with a surface of the nanostructures.

In one class of embodiments, the composition with which the first layer is coated comprises a silane. The composition can be applied to form the coating in one or more steps. For example, in certain embodiments, coating the first layer with the composition involves coating the first layer with a first compound and then coating the first layer with a second compound which interacts with the first compound and which includes the nanostructure association group. For example, the first layer can be coated with 3-aminopropyltriethoxysilane (APTES) as the first compound and then with N-5-azido-2-nitrobenzoyloxysuccinimide (ANB-NOS) as the second compound.

In one class of embodiments, the population of nanostructures is deposited on the coated first layer by depositing a solution comprising the nanostructures dispersed in at least one solvent on the coated first layer. The solvent can, but need not be, partially or completely removed from the deposited nanostructures, e.g., by evaporation. Any nanostructures which are not associated with the nanostructure association group can be conveniently removed, e.g., by washing with at least one solvent.

In one aspect, the monolayer array (or each of multiple arrays) of nanostructures formed by the methods comprises an ordered array, e.g., a hexagonal-close packed monolayer array. For many applications, however, an ordered array is not required. For example, for an array for use in a memory device, the nanostructures need not be ordered in the array as long as they achieve sufficient density in a disordered array. Thus, in another aspect, the monolayer array of nanostructures comprises a disordered array.

In one class of embodiments, the array (or each of multiple arrays produced by the methods) has a high density of nanostructures. For example, the monolayer array of nanostructures optionally has a density greater than about 1×10¹⁰ nanostructures/cm², greater than about 1×10¹¹ nanostructures/cm², greater than about 1×10¹² nanostructures/cm², or even greater than about 1×10¹³ nanostructures/cm².

In one class of embodiments, the nanostructures comprise substantially spherical nanostructures or quantum dots. The nanostructures can comprise essentially any desired material, chosen, e.g., based on the use to which the resulting monolayer array of nanostructures is to be put. For example, the nanostructures can comprise a conductive material, a nonconductive material, a semiconductor, and/or the like. In one aspect, the nanostructures have a work function of about 4.5 eV or higher.

Devices produced by or useful in practicing the methods of the invention are also a feature of the invention. Thus, another general class of embodiments provides a device including a coated first layer and a monolayer array of nanostructures disposed on the coated first layer. The coated first layer includes a first layer coated with a composition comprising a nanostructure association group, and the nanostructures are associated with the nanostructure association group.

Essentially all of the features noted for the methods above apply to these embodiments as well, as relevant; for example, with respect to composition of the first layer, substrate, composition used to coat the first later, nanostructure association group, and nanostructures. It is worth noting that the monolayer array of nanostructures can comprise an ordered array or a disordered array, and that the coated first layer optionally comprises two or more discrete regions, each of which occupies a predetermined position (so the device optionally includes two or more monolayer arrays of nanostructures disposed on the coated first layer). It is also worth noting that the device optionally comprises a flash transistor (floating gate memory MOSFET) or memory device. Thus, in certain embodiments, the first layer comprises a dielectric material, such as an oxide (e.g., a metal oxide, silicon oxide, hafnium oxide, or alumina (Al₂O₃), or a combination of such oxides), a nitride, an insulating polymer, or another nonconductive material. In this class of embodiments, the first layer (which serves as a tunnel dielectric layer) is preferably thin (e.g., has a thickness of between about 1 nm and about 10 nm, e.g., between 3 and 4 nm), and is disposed on a substrate that comprises a semiconductor (e.g., a Si substrate). The substrate typically includes a source region, a drain region, and a channel region between the source and drain regions and underlying the monolayer array of nanostructures. A control dielectric layer is disposed on the monolayer array of nanostructures, and a gate electrode is disposed on the control dielectric layer. The control dielectric layer comprises a dielectric material, for example, an oxide (e.g., a metal oxide, SiO₂, or Al₂O₃, or a combination of such oxides), an insulating polymer, or another nonconductive material.

One general class of embodiments provides methods for patterning a nanostructure monolayer using resist. In the methods, a monolayer of nanostructures disposed on a first layer is provided. Resist is disposed on the monolayer of nanostructures to provide a resist layer, and a predetermined pattern on the resist layer is exposed (e.g., to light, an electron beam, x-rays, etc.), to provide exposed resist in at least a first region of the resist layer and unexposed resist in at least a second region of the resist layer. Next either (1) the exposed resist and its underlying nanostructures are removed, and then the unexposed resist is removed without removing its underlying nanostructures from the first layer, or (2) the unexposed resist and its underlying nanostructures are removed, and then the exposed resist is removed without removing its underlying nanostructures. At least one nanostructure monolayer array defined by the first region remains on the first layer.

The monolayer of nanostructures can be produced by any convenient technique. For example, the first layer can be spin coated with a solution of nanostructures, and any nanostructures which are not in contact with the first layer can then be removed, e.g., by washing. The first layer can, but need not, include a coating comprising a nanostructure association group such as those described above. Similarly, the nanostructures optionally comprise a ligand such as those described above. In one class of embodiments, a dielectric layer is disposed on the monolayer of nanostructures, and the resist is disposed on the dielectric layer.

The methods can be used to produce essentially any number of monolayer arrays. For example, when option (1) is used, the unexposed resist can be provided in two or more, 10 or more, 50 or more, 100 or more, 1000 or more, 1×10⁴ or more, 1×10⁶ or more, 1×10⁹ or more, 1×10¹⁰ or more, 1×10¹¹ or more, or 1×10¹² or more discrete second regions of the resist layer, such that a like number of discrete nanostructure monolayer arrays remains on the first layer. Exposed resist (e.g., PMMA) and its underlying nanostructures can be removed, e.g., by removing the exposed resist (e.g., with an organic solvent) and then removing the underlying nanostructures by contacting them with aqueous HF, while unexposed resist can be removed, e.g., by contact with at least one solvent.

Essentially all of the features noted for the methods above apply to these embodiments as well, as relevant; for example, with respect to composition of the first layer, disposition of the first layer on a substrate, composition of the substrate, incorporation of the array(s) into transistor(s), nanostructure shape and composition, size and density of the array(s), and the like. It is worth noting that the monolayer array (or each of multiple arrays) can comprise an ordered array or a disordered array.

Another general class of embodiments also provides methods for patterning a nanostructure monolayer. In the methods, a first layer comprising a resist layer disposed thereon is provided. The resist is permitted to remain in at least a first region of the resist layer while the resist is removed from at least a second region of the resist layer. A population of nanostructures is disposed on the resist layer and the first layer; the nanostructures contact the resist in the first region and the first layer in a second region. The resist and its overlying nanostructures are removed from the first region, and any nanostructures which are not in contact with the first layer are removed from the second region, leaving at least one nanostructure monolayer array remaining on the first layer. It will be evident that the position, size, shape, etc. of the array corresponds to that of the second region, and that the number of arrays formed is equal the number of second regions. Removal of the resist and its overlying nanostructures from the first region and of any nanostructures which are not in contact with the first layer (e.g., in the second region) is optionally accomplished simultaneously, for example, by washing with at least a first solvent. Essentially all of the features noted for the methods above apply to these embodiments as well, as relevant.

As noted, devices produced by or useful in practicing the methods of the invention are also a feature of the invention. Thus, another general class of embodiments provides a device comprising a first layer, a monolayer array of nanostructures disposed on the first layer, and resist disposed on the first layer. In one class of embodiments, the resist comprises a resist layer disposed on the monolayer array of nanostructures. In another class of embodiments, the resist occupies a first region of the first layer and the monolayer array of nanostructures occupies a second region of the first layer, adjacent to the first region.

Essentially all of the features noted for the methods above apply to these embodiments as well, as relevant; for example, with respect to composition of the first layer, coating of the first layer, disposition of the first layer on a substrate, composition of the substrate, incorporation of the array(s) into transistor(s), nanostructure shape and composition, nanostructure ligands, size and density of the array(s), and the like. It is worth noting that the monolayer array (or each of multiple arrays) can comprise an ordered array or a disordered array.

One aspect of the invention provides devices and methods of using the devices for forming nanostructure arrays. Thus, one general class of embodiments provides a device comprising a first layer, a second layer, a cavity between the first and second layers, one or more spacers, and at least one aperture. The one or more spacers are positioned between the first and second layers and maintain a distance between the first and second layers. The at least one aperture connects the cavity with an exterior atmosphere. The cavity is occupied by a population of nanostructures.

As will be described in greater detail below, the device can be used to form a nanostructure array. In brief, a solution of nanostructures is introduced into the cavity, and the solvent is evaporated from the cavity. As the solvent evaporates, the nanostructures assemble into an array on the first layer. The speed of evaporation can be controlled and slow, such that the nanostructures assemble into an ordered array.

Thus, in one class of embodiments, the nanostructures (e.g., substantially spherical nanostructures or quantum dots) are dispersed in at least one solvent, while in other embodiments, the nano structures are substantially free of solvent. The structures optionally comprise an array disposed on the first layer. The array can comprise a disordered array, but in certain embodiments, the array comprises an ordered array. The array preferably comprises a monolayer, e.g., an ordered monolayer such as a hexagonal-close-packed monolayer, but optionally comprises more than a monolayer.

The first and second layers are typically substantially planar and substantially parallel to each other. Suitable materials for the first layer include, but are not limited to, those described above; for example, a dielectric material such as an oxide (e.g., silicon oxide, hafnium oxide, and alumina) or a nitride. The first layer optionally includes a coating comprising a composition that includes a nanostructure association group. Exemplary coating compositions and nanostructure association groups have been described above.

The first layer can be disposed on a substrate. Exemplary substrates have also been described above; for example, a semiconductor substrate can be used if the resulting array of nanostructures is to be incorporated into a transistor or similar device. It will be evident that multiple devices can be disposed on a single substrate and used to simultaneously produce essentially any desired number and/or size of nanostructure arrays at predetermined positions on the substrate (e.g., two or more, 10 or more, 50 or more, 100 or more, 1000 or more, 1×10⁴ or more, 1×10⁶ or more 1×10⁹ or more, 1×10¹⁰ or more, 1×10¹¹ or more, or 1×10¹² or more arrays).

The second layer and/or the spacer(s) can comprise essentially any suitable material. For example, the second layer and/or the spacer(s) can comprise a metal or a dielectric material (e.g., aluminum, nickel, chromium, molybdenum, ITO, a nitride, or an oxide).

The distance between the first and second layers is greater than an average diameter of the nanostructures and optionally less than about two times the average diameter of the nanostructures. The device can be of essentially any desired size and/or shape. In one class of embodiments, the first layer has four edges. The first and second layers are separated by two spacers, which run along two opposite edges of the first layer. Two apertures, which run along the remaining two opposite edges of the first layer, connect the cavity with the exterior atmosphere, e.g., to permit the solvent to escape as it evaporates.

Formation of the nanostructure array can be facilitated by application of an electric field across the cavity. Thus, in one class of embodiments, the first layer comprises or is disposed on a first conductive material, and the second layer comprises or is disposed on a second conductive material.

Methods using devices of the invention form another feature of the invention. Thus, one general class of embodiments provides methods for forming a nanostructure array. In the methods, a device comprising a first layer, a second layer, and a cavity between the first and second layers is provided. A solution comprising nanostructures dispersed in at least one solvent is introduced into the cavity. At least a portion of the solvent is evaporated from the cavity, whereby the nanostructures assemble into an array disposed on the first layer.

Essentially all of the features noted for the devices above apply to the methods as well, as relevant; for example, with respect to configuration of the device; composition of the first layer and/or spacers; type of nanostructures; configuration of the resulting array; and/or the like.

In one aspect, providing the device includes disposing a third layer on the first layer, disposing the second layer on the third layer, and removing at least a portion of the third layer, whereby the cavity between the first and second layers is formed. The third layer or portion thereof can be removed, e.g., by etching away the third layer with an etchant, e.g., an anisotropic etchant. For example, the third layer can comprise polysilicon (i.e., polycrystalline silicon), amorphous silicon, molybdenum or titanium, and the etchant can comprise XeF₂.

It will be evident that the thickness of the third layer which is removed defines the height of the resulting cavity between the first and second layers. Thus, the third layer has a thickness that is greater than an average diameter of the nanostructures and optionally less than about two times the average diameter of the nanostructures.

The first, layer optionally comprises a coating comprising a composition including a nanostructure association group. Thus, the methods optionally include coating the first layer with a composition comprising a nanostructure association group, prior to disposing the third layer on the first layer. Exemplary coating compositions and nanostructure association groups have been described above.

Nanostructures can be conveniently introduced into the cavity by, e.g., capillary action. In one class of embodiments, the solution of nanostructures is introduced into the cavity by immersing the device in an excess of the solution, permitting the solution to be drawn into the cavity by capillary action, and removing the device from the excess of the solution.

Part or substantially all the solvent is evaporated. A rate of evaporation of the solvent can be controlled, e.g., to control array formation. For example, slow evaporation of the solvent gradually increases the concentration of nanostructures, which can be conducive to formation of an ordered array of nanostructures, e.g., an ordered monolayer such as a hexagonal-close-packed monolayer.

An AC voltage is optionally across the cavity after introducing the solution into the cavity (e.g., prior to or simultaneous with evaporation of the solvent). When evaporation and, array formation have proceeded as far as desired, the second layer is removed. Optionally, any extraneous nanostructures (e.g., any nanostructures greater than a monolayer) and/or any remaining solvent can also be removed, e.g., by washing.

Another general class of embodiments provides a device including a solid support comprising at least one vertical discontinuity on its surface. The discontinuity comprises a protrusion from the surface or an indentation in the surface. The protrusion or indentation is at a predetermined position on the solid support. The device also includes a population of nanostructures disposed on the protrusion or in the indentation.

As will be described in greater detail below, the device can be used to form a nanostructure array. In brief, a solution of nanostructures is deposited on the solid support, and the solvent is evaporated. As the solvent evaporates, the nanostructures assemble into an array on the protrusion or in the indentation. The speed of evaporation can be controlled and slow, such that the nanostructures assemble into an ordered array.

Thus, in one class of embodiments, the nanostructures are dispersed in at least one solvent, while in other embodiments, the nanostructures are substantially free of solvent. The nanostructures optionally comprise an array disposed on the protrusion or in the indentation. The array can comprise a disordered array, but in certain embodiments, the array comprises an ordered array. The array preferably comprises a monolayer, e.g., an ordered monolayer such as a hexagonal-close-packed monolayer, but optionally comprises more than a monolayer.

In a preferred class of embodiments, the solid support comprises a first layer. The solid support optionally also includes a substrate on which the first layer is disposed. In one class of embodiments, the first layer includes a coating comprising a composition comprising a nanostructure association group. Exemplary materials for the first layer and substrate, and exemplary coating compositions and nanostructure association groups, have been described above. Essentially all of the features noted in the embodiments above apply these embodiments as well, as relevant; for example, with respect to type of nanostructures (e.g., short nanorods, substantially spherical nanostructures, quantum dots, or the like).

As noted, methods using devices of the invention form another feature of the invention. Thus, one general class of embodiments provides methods for forming a nanostructure array. In the methods, a solid support comprising at least one vertical discontinuity on its surface is; provided. The discontinuity comprises a protrusion from the surface or an indentation in the surface, and the protrusion or indentation is at a predetermined position on the solid support. A solution comprising nanostructures dispersed in at least one solvent is deposited on the solid support. At least a portion of the solvent is evaporated, whereby the nanostructures assemble into an array disposed on the protrusion or in the indentation.

Essentially all of the features noted for the devices above apply to the methods as well, as relevant; for example, with respect to configuration of the device, type of nanostructures, configuration of the resulting array, and/or the like.

In a preferred class of embodiments, the solid support comprises a first layer. The solid support optionally also includes a substrate on which the first layer is disposed. The first layer optionally comprises a coating comprising a composition including a nanostructure association group. Thus, the methods optionally include coating the first layer with a composition comprising a nanostructure association group, prior to depositing the solution on the first layer. Exemplary materials for the first layer and substrate, and exemplary coating compositions and nanostructure association groups, have been described above.

The solution containing the nanostructures can be deposited on the solid support by any of a variety of techniques, including, for example, spin-coating the solution on the solid support, dip-coating the solution on the solid support, soaking the solid support in an excess of the solution, or spray coating the solid support with the solution.

Part or substantially all the solvent is evaporated. A rate of evaporation of the solvent can be controlled, e.g., to control array formation. For example, slow evaporation of the solvent gradually increases the concentration of nanostructures, which can be conducive to formation of an ordered array of nanostructures, e.g., an ordered monolayer such as a hexagonal-close-packed monolayer.

The methods and devices of the invention can be used to produce nanostructure arrays at predetermined positions, and these arrays can be incorporated into various optoelectronic devices, for example. Thus, in one aspect, the invention provides devices including nanostructure arrays, including arrays of predetermined location and/or size.

One general class of embodiments provides a device that includes a substrate and two or more nanostructure arrays disposed on the substrate. Each nanostructure array is disposed at a predetermined position on the substrate (e.g., a semiconductor, a quartz substrate, or a silicon wafer or portion thereof).

In one class of embodiments, a first layer is disposed between the nanostructure arrays and the substrate. Exemplary materials for the first layer have been described above. The first layer optionally includes a coating comprising a composition including a nanostructure association group; exemplary compositions and nanostructure association groups have likewise been described above.

In one class of embodiments, the first layer comprises a dielectric material and has a thickness of between about 1 nm and about 10 nm, e.g., between 3 and 4 nm. In some embodiments, for each monolayer array of nanostructures, the substrate comprises a source region, a drain region, and a channel region between the source and drain regions and underlying the monolayer array of nanostructures; a control dielectric layer is disposed on each monolayer array of nanostructures; and a gate electrode is disposed on each control dielectric layer.

The device can include essentially any number of nanostructure arrays, for example, 10 or more, 50 or more, 100 or more, 1000 or more, 1×10⁴ or more, 1×10⁶ or more, 1×10⁹ or more, 1×10¹⁰ or more, 1×10¹¹ or more, or 1×10¹² or more nanostructure arrays. Similarly, the arrays can be of essentially any desired size and/or shape. For example, each nanostructure array can have an area of about 10⁴ μm² or less, about 10³ μm² or less, about 10² μm² or less, about 10 μm² or less, about 1 μm² or less, about 10⁵ nm² or less, about 10⁴ nm² or less, or even about 4225 nm² or less, about 2025 nm² or less, about 1225 nm² or less, about 625 nm² or less, or about 324 nm² or less. Each nanostructure array optionally has dimensions of about 45×45 nm or less, about 35×35 nm or less, about 25×25 mm or less, or about 18×18 nm or less.

In one aspect, each nanostructure array comprises an ordered array and/or a monolayer, e.g., a hexagonal-close-packed monolayer. For many applications, however, ordered arrays are not required. For example, for arrays for use in memory devices, the nanostructures need not be ordered in the arrays as long as they achieve sufficient density in disordered arrays. Thus, in another aspect, each nanostructure array comprises a disordered array, e.g., a disordered monolayer array.

In one class of embodiments, the arrays have a high density of nanostructures. For example, each nanostructure array optionally has a density greater than about 1×10¹⁰ nanostructures/cm², greater than about 1×10¹¹ nanostructures/cm², greater than about 1×10¹² nanostructures/cm², or even greater than about 1×10¹³ nanostructures/cm².

In one class of embodiments, the nanostructures comprise substantially spherical nanostructures or quantum dots. The nanostructures can comprise essentially any desired material, chosen, e.g., based on the desired application. For example, the nanostructures can comprise a conductive material, a nonconductive material, a semiconductor, and/or the like. In one aspect, the nanostructures comprising the arrays have a work function of about 4.5 eV or higher. The nanostructures comprising the arrays are typically preformed, that is, synthesized prior to their incorporation in the array. For example, in one aspect, the nanostructures are colloidal nanostructures. In one class of embodiments, each of the nanostructures comprising the arrays comprises a coating comprising a ligand associated with a surface of the nanostructure, e.g., a silsesquioxane ligand. In a related class of embodiments, the nanostructures comprising the arrays are encompassed by SiO₂ or other insulating shells.

Another general class of embodiments provides a memory device that includes at least one transistor (e.g., a MOSFET) comprising a gate area which is occupied by a monolayer array of nanostructures and which has an area of 8100 nm² or less. The gate area optionally has an area of about 4225 nm² or less, about 2025 nm² or less, about 1225 nm² or less, about 625 nm² or less, or even about 324 nm² or less. The gate area optionally has dimensions of about 65×65 nm or less, about 45×45 nm, or less, about 35×35 nm or less, about 25×25 nm or less, or about 18×18 nm or less.

The device can include essentially any number of such transistors. For example, the memory device can include two or more, 10 or more, 50 or more, 100 or more, 1000 or more, 1×10⁴ or more 1×10⁶ or more, 1×10⁹ or more, 1×10¹⁰ or more, 1×10¹¹ or more, or 1×10¹² or more transistors.

Essentially all of the features noted for the embodiments above apply to this embodiment as well, as relevant. For example, the nanostructures comprising the monolayer array optionally comprise substantially spherical nanostructures or quantum dots, have a work function of about 4.5 eV or higher, are preformed (e.g., colloidal), and/or are encompassed by SiO₂ or other insulating shells. Similarly, the monolayer array can comprise an ordered array (e.g., a hexagonal-close-packed monolayer) or a disordered array. The monolayer array (whether ordered or disordered) optionally has a density greater than about 1×10¹⁰ nanostructures/cm², greater than about 1×10¹¹ nanostructures/cm², greater than about 1×10¹² nanostructures/cm², or greater than about 1×10¹³ nanostructures/cm².

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 Panels A-C schematically illustrate formation of monolayer arrays of nanostructures on a coated first layer, where discrete regions of the first layer are coated.

FIG. 2 Panels A-D schematically illustrate formation of monolayer arrays of nanostructures on a coated first layer, where the coating composition is photoactivatable and discrete regions of the first layer are exposed to light to initiate cross-linking of the composition to ligands on the nanostructures.

FIG. 3 Panel A depicts an exemplary monothiol silsesquioxane ligand, while Panel B depicts an exemplary trithiol silsesquioxane ligand. R can be an organic group or a hydrogen atom; for example, R can be a hydrocarbon group, an alkyl group (e.g., a cyclic alkyl group or a short alkyl group having fewer than 20 or even fewer than 10 carbon atoms), an aryl group, an alkylaryl group, an alkenyl group, or an alkynyl group. For example, in some embodiments, R is an isobutyl group, a methyl group, a hexyl group, or a cyclopentyl group. In certain embodiments, R is a cyclohexyl group.

FIG. 4 schematically illustrates fabrication of a flash transistor comprising a monolayer array of nanostructures, including use of resist to pattern the monolayer.

FIG. 5 Panels A-D schematically illustrate formation of a monolayer array of nanostructures using a device of the invention. A side view of the device is schematically depicted in Panels A-C.

FIG. 6 Panels A-B schematically illustrate fabrication of devices for forming nanostructure arrays. Side views of the devices are shown.

FIG. 7 Panels A-C schematically illustrate exemplary devices of the invention. Panel A depicts a top view of a device. Panel B presents a cross section of the device shown in Panel A, and outlines formation of a monolayer array of nanostructures using the device. Panel C depicts a cross section of another exemplary device.

Figures are not necessarily to scale.

DEFINITIONS

Unless defined otherwise, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which the invention pertains. The following definitions supplement those in the art and are directed to the current application and are not to be imputed to any related or unrelated case, e.g., to any commonly owned patent or application. Although any methods and materials similar or equivalent to those described herein can be used in the practice for testing of the present invention, the preferred materials and methods are described herein. Accordingly, the terminology used herein is for the purpose of describing particular embodiments only, and is not intended to be limiting.

As used in this specification and the appended claims, the singular forms “a,” “an” and “the” include plural referents unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. Thus, for example, reference to “a nanostructure” includes a plurality of such nanostructures, and the like.

The term “about” as used herein indicates the value of a given quantity varies by +/−10% of the value, or optionally +/−5% of the value, or in some embodiments, by +/−1% of the value so described.

A “nanostructure” is a structure having at least one region or characteristic dimension with a dimension of less than about 500 nm, e.g., less than about 200 nm, less than about 100 nm, less than about 50 nm, or even less than about 20 nm. Typically, the region or characteristic dimension will be along the smallest axis of the structure. Examples of such structures include nanowires, nanorods, nanotubes, branched nanostructures, nanotetrapods, tripods, bipods, nanocrystals, nanodots, quantum dots, nanoparticles, and the like. Nanostructures can be, e.g., substantially crystalline, substantially monocrystalline, polycrystalline, amorphous, or a combination thereof. In one aspect, each of the three dimensions of the nanostructure has a dimension of less than about 500 nm, e.g., less than about 200 nm, less than about 100 nm, less than about 50 nm, or even less than about 20 nm.

An “aspect ratio” is the length of a first axis of a nanostructure divided by the average of the lengths of the second and third axes of the nanostructure, where the second and third axes are the two axes whose lengths are most nearly equal each other. For example, the aspect ratio for a perfect rod would be the length of its long axis divided by the diameter of a cross-section perpendicular to (normal to) the long axis.

As used herein, the “diameter” of a nanostructure refers to the diameter of a cross-section normal to a first axis of the nanostructure, where the first axis has the greatest difference in length with respect to the second and third axes (the second and third axes are the two axes whose lengths most nearly equal each other). The first axis is not necessarily the longest axis of the nanostructure; e.g., for a disk-shaped nanostructure; the cross-section would be a substantially circular cross-section normal to the short longitudinal axis of the disk. Where the cross-section is not circular; the diameter is the average of the major and minor axes of that cross-section. For an elongated or high aspect ratio nanostructure, such as a nanowire or nanorod, a diameter is typically measured across a cross-section perpendicular to the longest axis of the nanowire or nanorod. For spherical nanostructures such as quantum dots, the diameter is measured from one side to the other through the center of the sphere.

The terms “crystalline” or “substantially crystalline,” when used with respect to nanostructures, refer to the fact that the nanostructures typically exhibit long-range ordering across one or more dimensions of the structure. It will be understood by one of skill in the art that the term “long range ordering” will depend on the absolute size of the specific nanostructures, as ordering for a single crystal cannot extend beyond the boundaries of the crystal. In this case, “long-range ordering” will mean substantial order across at least the majority of the dimension of the nanostructure. In some instances, a nanostructure can bear an oxide or other coating, or can be comprised of a core and at least one shell. In such instances it will be appreciated that the oxide, shell(s), or other coating need not exhibit such ordering (e.g. it can be amorphous, polycrystalline, or otherwise). In such instances, the phrase “crystalline,” “substantially crystalline,” “substantially monocrystalline,” or “monocrystalline” refers to the central core of the nanostructure (excluding the coating layers or shells). The terms “crystalline,” or “substantially crystalline” as used herein are intended to also encompass structures comprising various defects, stacking faults, atomic substitutions, and the like, as long as the structure exhibits substantial long range ordering (e.g., order over at least about 80% of the length of at least one axis of the nanostructure or its core). In addition, it will be appreciated that the interface between a core and the outside of a nanostructure or between a core and an adjacent shell or between a shell and a second adjacent shell may contain non-crystalline regions and may even be amorphous. This does not prevent the nanostructure from being crystalline or substantially crystalline as defined herein.

The term “monocrystalline” when used with respect to a nanostructure indicates that the nanostructure is substantially crystalline and comprises substantially a single crystal. When used with respect to a nanostructure heterostructure comprising a core and one or more shells, “monocrystalline” indicates that the core is substantially crystalline and comprises substantially a single crystal.

A “nanocrystal” is a nanostructure that is substantially monocrystalline. A nanocrystal thus has at least one region or characteristic dimension with a dimension of less than about 500 nm, e.g., less than about 200 nm, less than about 100 nm, less than about 50 nm, or even less than about 20 nm. The term “nanocrystal” is intended to encompass substantially monocrystalline nanostructures comprising various defects, stacking faults, atomic substitutions, and the like, as well as substantially monocrystalline nanostructures without such defects, faults, or substitutions. In the case of nanocrystal heterostructures comprising a core and one or more shells, the core of the nanocrystal is typically substantially monocrystalline, but the shell(s) need not be. In one aspect, each of the three dimensions of the nanocrystal has a dimension of less than about 500 nm, e.g., less than about 200 nm, less than about 100 nm, less than about 50 nm, or even less than about 20 nm. Examples of nanocrystals include, but are not limited to, substantially spherical nanocrystals, branched nanocrystals, and substantially monocrystalline nanowires, nanorods, nanodots, quantum dots, nanotetrapods, tripods, bipods, and branched tetrapods (e.g., inorganic dendrimers).

A “substantially spherical nanostructure” is a nanostructure with an aspect ratio between about 0.8 and about 1.2. For example, a “substantially spherical nanocrystal” is a nanocrystal with an aspect ratio between about 0.8 and about 1.2.

A “nanostructure array” is an assemblage of nanostructures. The assemblage can be spatially ordered (an “ordered array”) or disordered (a “disordered array”). In a “monolayer array” of nanostructures, the assemblage of nanostructures comprises a monolayer.

A variety of additional terms are defined or otherwise characterized herein.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

In one aspect, the invention provides methods for forming nanostructure arrays, e.g., ordered or disordered monolayer arrays of nanostructures. The arrays are optionally formed at predetermined positions and/or have predetermined dimensions. Devices related to the methods are also provided, as are devices including nanostructure arrays. For example, in one aspect, the invention provides memory devices including small monolayer arrays of nanostructures.

Monolayer Formation on Chemical Coatings

A surface on which a nanostructure array is to be formed can be coated with a chemical composition, e.g., a composition having a higher affinity for the nanostructures than the surface itself does. Such a coating can, e.g., facilitate adhesion of the nanostructures to the surface and can thus facilitate formation of the monolayer.

Thus, one general class of embodiments provides methods for forming a nanostructure array. In the methods, a first layer is provided and coated with a composition comprising a nanostructure association group, to provide a coated first layer. A population of nanostructures is deposited on the coated first layer, whereby the nanostructures associate with the nanostructure association group. Any nanostructures which are not associated with the nanostructure association group are removed, whereby a monolayer array of nanostructures remains associated with the coated first layer.

The first layer can comprise essentially any desired material, chosen, e.g., based on the use to which the resulting monolayer array of nanostructures is to be put (e.g., a conductive material, a nonconductive material, a semiconductor, or the like). The first layer is optionally disposed on a substrate, which can similarly comprise essentially any desired material, depending, e.g., on the desired use of the nanostructure array. Suitable substrates include, but are not limited to: a uniform substrate, e.g., a wafer of solid material, such as silicon or other semiconductor material, glass, quartz; polymerics, etc.; a large rigid sheet of solid material, e.g., glass, quartz, plastics such as polycarbonate, polystyrene, etc.; a flexible substrate, such as a roll of plastic such as polyolefin, polyamide, and others; or a transparent substrate. Combinations of these features can be employed. The substrate optionally includes other compositional or structural elements that are part of an ultimately desired device. Particular examples of such elements include electrical circuit elements such as electrical contacts, other wires or conductive paths, including nanowires or other nanoscale conducting elements, optical and/or optoelectrical elements (e.g., lasers, LEDs, etc.), and structural elements (e.g., microcantilevers, pits, wells, posts, etc.).

For example, in embodiments in which the monolayer array of nanostructures is to be incorporated into a flash transistor or memory device, the first layer comprises a dielectric material, such as an oxide (e.g., a metal oxide, silicon oxide, hafnium oxide, or alumina (Al₂O₃), or a combination of such oxides), a nitride (e.g., Si₃N₄), an insulating polymer, or another nonconductive material. In this class of embodiments, the first layer (which serves as a tunnel dielectric layer in these embodiments) is preferably thin (e.g., has a thickness of between about 1 nm and about 10 nm, e.g., between 3 and 4 nm), and is disposed on a substrate that comprises a semiconductor. The substrate typically includes a source region, a drain region, and a channel region between the source and drain regions and underlying the monolayer array of nanostructures, and the methods include disposing a control dielectric layer on the monolayer array of nanostructures and disposing a gate electrode on the control dielectric layer, thus incorporating the nanostructure array into a transistor. The control dielectric layer comprises a dielectric material, for example, an oxide (e.g., a metal oxide, SiO₂, or Al₂O₃, or a combination of such oxides), an insulating polymer, or another nonconductive material.

The methods can be used to form multiple nanostructure arrays on the same surface. Thus, in one class of embodiments, two or more discrete regions of the first layer are coated with the composition. Each region occupies a predetermined position on the first layer (which can, e.g., correspond to a predetermined position on a substrate on which the first layer is disposed). Two or more discrete monolayer arrays of nanostructures thus remain associated with the coated first layer after deposition of the population of nanostructures on the coated regions of the first layer and removal of nanostructures not associated with the nanostructure association group. Essentially any number of nanostructure arrays can be produced in this manner. For example, 10 or more, 50 or more, 100 or more; 1000 or more, 1×10⁴ or more, 1×10⁶ or more, 1×10⁹ or more, 1×10¹⁰ or more, 1×10¹¹ or more, or 1×10¹² or more discrete regions of the first layer can be coated with the composition, whereby 10 or more, 50 or more, 100 or more, 1000 or more, 1×10⁴ or more, 1×10⁶ or more, 1×10⁹ or more, 1×10¹⁰ or more, 1×10¹¹ or more, or 1×10¹² or more discrete monolayer nanostructure arrays are formed at predetermined positions on the first layer.

The regions can be of essentially any desired size. For example, each region (and thus each resulting monolayer array of nanostructures) can have an area of about 10⁴ μm² or less, about 10³ μm² or less, about 10² μm² or less, about 10 μm² or less, about 1 μm² or less, about 10⁵ nm² or less, about 10⁴ nm² or less, or even about 4225 nm² or less, about 2025 nm² or less, about 1225 nm² or less, about 625 nm² or less, or about 324 nm² or less. It will be evident that each of the resulting arrays can, if desired, be incorporated into a transistor or other device.

Techniques useful for coating discrete regions of the first layer have been described in the art. For example, the first layer can be coated with resist (e.g., photoresist), which is exposed and developed in the desired pattern to uncover the desired regions of the first layer, which are then coated with the composition. As another example, the first layer can be coated with the composition, then with resist which is exposed and developed in the inverse of the desired pattern. Composition not protected by the resist is removed, and the remaining resist is removed to leave the composition in the desired regions. As yet another example, the composition can simply be printed on the first layer in desired regions. In another class of embodiments, the monolayer is formed and then patterned, e.g., using resist as described below in the section entitled “Patterning monolayers using resist.”

As noted, the composition used to coat the first layer comprises a nanostructure association group (e.g., a chemical group that can interact, covalently or noncovalently, with a surface of a nanostructure and/or with a ligand coating a surface of a nanostructure). A large number of suitable groups are known in the art and can be adapted to the practice of the present invention. Exemplary nanostructure association groups include, but are not limited to, thiol, amine, alcohol, phosphonyl, carboxyl, boronyl, fluorine or other noncarbon heteroatom, phosphinyl, alkyl, aryl, and like groups.

In one class of embodiments, the composition comprises a silane. For example, the silane can be an organosilane, e.g., a trichlorosilane, trimethoxysilane, or triethoxysilane. As another example, the silane can include a structure having the formula [X₃Si-spacer-nanostructure association group(s)] where X is a Cl, OR, alkyl aryl, other hydrocarbon, heteroatom, or a combination of these groups, and where the spacer is an alkyl, aryl and/or heteroatom combination. The silane can react with free hydroxyl groups on the surface of a silicon oxide first layer, for example, forming a monolayer coating on the first layer.

In one aspect, the nanostructure association group interacts with a surface of the nanostructures. In one exemplary class of embodiments, the nanostructure association group comprises a thiol group. The coated first layer can thus comprise, e.g., a self-assembled monolayer comprising a thiol compound. The composition can comprise, for example, a mercaptoalkyltrichlorosilane, a mercaptoalkyltrimethoxysilaane, or a mercaptoalkyltriethoxysilane, e.g., in which the alkyl group comprises between 3 and 18 carbons (e.g., 12-mercaptododecyltrimethoxysilane). The composition optionally comprises a mixture of two or more different compounds. For example, the composition can include a mixture of a long chain mercaptosilane (e.g., a mercaptoalkyltrichlorosilane, a mercaptoalkyltrimethoxysilane, or a mercaptoalkyltriethoxysilane, where the alkyl group comprises between 8 and 18 carbons) and a short chain mercaptosilane (e.g., a mercaptoalkyltrichlorosilane, a mercaptoalkyltrimethoxysilane, or a mercaptoalkyltriethoxysilane, where the alkyl group comprises 8 or fewer carbons), where the alkyl group in the long chain mercaptosilane comprises at least one more carbon than does the alkyl group in the short chain mercaptosilane. In this example, the ratio of the long and short chain mercaptosilanes can be varied to tailor the surface presented to the nanostructures. For example, the long and short chain mercaptosilanes can be present at a molar ratio of between about 1:10 and about 1:10,000 long chain mercaptosilane to short chain mercaptosilane (e.g., a molar ratio of about 1:100 or 1:1000). As another example, the composition can include a mixture of a long chain mercaptosilane and a short chain silane which need not comprise a nanostructure association group (e.g., an alkyltrichlorosilane, alkyltrimethoxysilane, or alkyltriethoxysilane, where the alkyl group comprises 8 or fewer carbons).

The nanostructures are optionally associated with a surfactant or other surface ligand. In one class of embodiments, each of the nanostructures comprises a coating comprising a ligand associated with a surface of the nanostructure, for example, a silsesquioxane ligand such as those described in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 60/632,570 filed Nov. 30, 2004 by Whiteford et al. entitled “Post-deposition encapsulation of nanocrystals: Compositions, devices and systems incorporating same” or illustrated in FIG. 3. The ligands optionally control spacing between adjacent nanostructures in an array. The nanostructure association group can displace the ligand and/or can intercalate between adjacent ligand molecules to reach the surface of the nanostructures.

An exemplary embodiment is schematically illustrated in FIG. 1. In this example, first layer 103 (e.g., a layer of SiO₂) is disposed on substrate 120 (e.g., a silicon substrate). The first layer as depicted is continuously distributed across the substrate, but it will be evident that the first layer can optionally instead be disposed in multiple discrete regions on the substrate. The first layer is coated with composition 104 (e.g., a mixture of long and short chain mercaptosilanes) including nanostructure association group 105 (e.g., a thiol group), to form coated first layer 102 in discrete regions 119. A population of nanostructures 110 (e.g., Pd quantum dots) coated with ligand 111 (e.g., a silsesquioxane ligand) is deposited on the coated first layer, e.g., by spin coating (Panel A). Nanostructures associate with the nanostructure association group, which intercalates among the ligand coating the nanostructures, and form slightly more than a monolayer on the first layer (Panel B). Nanostructures that are not associated with the nanostructure association group are removed (e.g., by washing with a solvent) to leave monolayer arrays 109 of nanostructures associated with the coated first layer (Panel C).

Instead of (or in addition to) displacing or intercalating with the ligand on the nanostructures to interact with the nanostructure surface, the nanostructure association group can interact with the ligand. Thus, in one aspect, each of the nanostructures comprises a coating comprising a ligand associated with a surface of the nanostructure, and the nanostructure association group interacts with the ligand. In some embodiments, the ligand comprises a silsesquioxane. Exemplary ligands include, but are not limited to, those described in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 60/632,570 (supra) or illustrated in FIG. 3.

The interaction between the ligand and the nanostructure association group can be covalent or noncovalent. Thus, in one class of embodiments, the interaction is noncovalent. The composition can comprise, for example, 3-aminopropyltriethoxysilane (APTES), dodecyltrichlorosilane, octadecyltrichlorosilane, dodecyltriethoxysilane, octadecyltriethoxysilane, or any of a number of similar compounds. As noted above, the silanes can, e.g., bind to free hydroxyl groups on the surface of an SiO₂ first layer. The dodecyl and octadecyl groups provide a hydrophobic surface, e.g., for interaction with a hydrophobic ligand on the nanostructures, while APTES provides a polar surface, e.g., for interaction with a ligand that can hydrogen bond with the APTES amino groups.

In another class of embodiments, the nanostructure association group forms a covalent bond with the ligand. The composition is optionally photoactivatable, such that the covalent bond between the ligand and the nanostructure association group is formed only upon exposure to light. In such embodiments, the methods include exposing one or more discrete regions of the coated first layer, each of which occupies a predetermined position on the coated first layer, to light.

Essentially any number of nanostructure arrays can be produced in this manner. For example, two or more, 10 or more, 50 or more, 100 or more, 1000 or more, 1×10⁴ or more, 1×10⁶ or more, 1×10⁹ or more, 1×10¹⁰ or more, 1×10¹¹ or more, or 1×10¹² or more discrete regions of the coated first layer can be exposed to the light, resulting in formation of a like number of discrete nanostructure monolayer arrays at predetermined positions on the first layer (and thus, at predetermined positions on any substrate on which the first layer is disposed). Similarly, the regions can be of essentially any desired size. For example, each region (and thus each resulting monolayer array of nanostructures) can have an area of about 10⁴ μm² or less, about 10³ μm² or less, about 10² μm² or less, about 10 m² or less, about 1 μm² or less, about 10⁵ nm² or less, about 10⁴ nm² or less, or even about 4225 nm² or less, about 2025 nm² or less, about 1225 nm² or less, about 625 nm² or less, or about 324 nm² or less. It will be evident that each of the resulting arrays can, if desired, be incorporated into a transistor or other device. Using a photoactivatable composition thus provides a convenient means of patterning, such that a desired number, size, and/or shape of monolayer nanostructure array(s) can be produced.

A large number of photoactivatable compounds are known in the art and can be adapted to the practice of the present invention. For example, the composition can include a phenyl azide group, which when photoactivated can form a covalent bond with, e.g., a silsesquioxane ligand comprising a coating associated with a surface of the nanostructures. Exemplary photoactivatable compositions include, but are not limited to, compounds comprising an aryl azide group (e.g., a phenyl azide, hydroxyphenyl azide, or nitrophenyl azide group), a psoralen, or a diene.

The composition an be applied to form the coating in one or more steps. For example, in certain embodiments, coating the first layer with the composition involves coating the first layer with a first compound and then coating the first layer with a second compound which interacts with the first compound and which includes the nanostructure association group. For example, the first layer (e.g., an SiO₂ first layer) can be coated with 3-aminopropyltriethoxysilane (APTES) as the first compound and then with N-5-azido-2-nitrobenzoyloxysuccinimide (ANB-NOS) as the second compound. (ANB-NOS has an amine-reactive N-hydroxysuccinimide ester group, which reacts with the APTES amino groups, and a nitrophenyl azide group, which can be photolyzed, e.g., at 320-350 nm.)

An exemplary embodiment is schematically illustrated in FIG. 2. In this example, first layer 203 (e.g., a layer of SiO₂) is disposed on substrate 220 (e.g., a silicon substrate. The first layer is coated with composition 204 (e.g., APTES and ANB-NOS), which includes photoactivatable nanostructure association group 205 (e.g., a phenyl azide group), to form coated first layer 202 (Panel A). A population of nanostructures 210 (e.g., Pd quantum dots) coated with ligand 211 (e.g., a silsesquioxane ligand) is deposited on the coated first layer, e.g., by spin coating to form slightly more than a monolayer (Panel B). Discrete regions 219 of the coated first layer are exposed to light 230, while the remainder of the coated first layer is protected from exposure to the light by mask 231 (Panel C). Nanostructures that are not covalently bonded to the nanostructure association group are removed (e.g., by washing with a solvent, e.g., hexane) to leave monolayer arrays 209 of nanostructures associated with the coated first layer (Panel D).

In one class of embodiments, the population of nanostructures is deposited on the coated first layer by depositing a solution comprising the nanostructures dispersed in at least one solvent on the coated first layer. The solution of nanostructures can be deposited by essentially any convenient technique, for example, spin coating, dip coating, soaking, spraying, or similar techniques. The solvent can, but need not be, partially or completely removed from the deposited nanostructures, e.g., by evaporation. Any nanostructures which are not associated with the nanostructure association group can be conveniently removed, e.g., by washing with at least one solvent.

In one aspect, the monolayer array (or each of multiple arrays) of nanostructures formed by the methods comprises an ordered array, e.g., a hexagonal-close packed monolayer array comprising substantially spherical nanocrystals or a square array comprising cubic nanocrystals. For many applications, however, an ordered array is not required. For example, for an array for use in a memory device, the nanostructures need not be ordered in the array as long as they achieve sufficient density in a disordered array. Thus, in another aspect, the monolayer array of nanostructures comprises a disordered array.

In one class of embodiments, the array (or each of multiple arrays produced by the methods) has a high density of nanostructures. For example, the monolayer array of nanostructures optionally has a density greater than about 1×10¹⁰ nanostructures/cm², greater than about 1×10¹¹ nanostructures/cm², greater than about 1×10¹² nanostructures/cm², or even greater than about 1×10¹³ nanostructures/cm².

In one class of embodiments, the nanostructures comprise substantially spherical nanostructures or quantum dots. The nanostructures can comprise essentially any desired material, chosen, e.g., based on the use to which the resulting monolayer array of nanostructures is to be put. For example, the nanostructures can comprise a conductive material a nonconductive material, a semiconductor, and/or the like. In one aspect, the nanostructures have a work function of about 4.5 eV or higher. Such nanostructures are useful, for example, in fabrication of memory devices, where if the work function of the nanostructures is not sufficiently high, electrons stored in the nanostructures tend to travel back across the tunnel dielectric layer, resulting in memory loss. Thus, the nanostructures (e.g., the substantially spherical nanostructures or quantum dots) optionally comprise materials such as palladium (Pd), iridium (Ir), nickel (Ni), platinum (Pt), gold (Au), ruthenium (Ru), cobalt (Co), tungsten (W), tellurium (Te), iron platinum alloy (FePt), or the like. Nanostructures are described in greater detail below in the section entitled “Nanostructures”.

Devices produced by or useful in practicing the methods of the invention are also a feature of the invention. Thus, another general class of embodiments provides a device including a coated first layer and a monolayer array of nanostructures disposed on the coated first layer. The coated first layer includes a first layer coated with a composition comprising a nanostructure association group, and the nanostructures are associated with the nanostructure association group.

Essentially all of the features noted for the methods above apply to these embodiments as well, as relevant; for example, with respect to composition of the first layer, substrate, composition used to coat the first layer; nanostructure association group, and nanostructures. It is worth noting that the monolayer array of nanostructures can comprise an ordered array or a disordered array, and that the coated first layer optionally comprises two or more discrete regions, each of which occupies a predetermined position (so the device optionally includes two or more monolayer array of nanostructures disposed on the coated first layer). It is also worth noting that the device optionally comprises a flash transistor (floating gate memory MOSFET) or memory device. Thus, in certain embodiments, the first layer comprises a dielectric material, such as an oxide (e.g.; a metal oxide, silicon oxide, hafnium oxide, or alumina (Al₂O₃)), a nitride, an insulating polymer, or another nonconductive material. In this class of embodiments, the first layer (which serves as a tunnel dielectric layer) is preferably thin (e.g., has a thickness of between about 1 nm and about 10 nm, e.g., between 3 and 4 nm), and is disposed on a substrate that comprises a semiconductor (e.g., a Si substrate). The substrate typically includes a source region, a drain region, and a channel region between the source and drain regions and underlying the monolayer array of nanostructures. A control dielectric layer is disposed on the monolayer array of nanostructures, and a gate electrode is disposed on the control dielectric layer. The control dielectric layer comprises a dielectric material, e.g., an oxide (e.g., a metal oxide, SiO₂, or Al₂O₃), an insulating polymer, or another nonconductive material. The electrodes can comprise essentially any suitable material(s). For example, the gate electrode can comprise polysilicon, a metal silicide (e.g., nickel silicide or tungsten silicide), ruthenium, ruthenium oxide, or Cr/Au. Similarly, the source and drain electrodes optionally comprise a metal silicide (e.g., nickel silicide or tungsten silicide) or any of various barrier metals or metal nitrides such as TiN, connecting to other metals such as copper or aluminum.

An exemplary embodiment is schematically illustrated in FIG. 1 Panel C. In this example, device 101 includes coated first layer 102 and monolayer arrays 109 of nanostructures 110 disposed on the coated first layer in discrete regions 119. Coated first layer 102 includes first layer 103 coated with composition 104 including nanostructure association group 105. The first layer is disposed on substrate 120.

A related exemplary embodiment is schematically illustrated in FIG. 2 Panel D. In this example, device 201 includes coated first layer 202 and monolayer arrays 209 of nanostructures 210 disposed on the coated first layer in discrete regions 219. Coated first layer 202 includes first layer 203 coated with composition 204 including nanostructure association group 205. The first layer is disposed on substrate 220. In this embodiment, nanostructure association group 205 is covalently bonded to ligand 211 on the nanostructures.

Patterning Monolayers Using Resist

The methods described above permit the size, shape, and/or position of resultant monolayer nanostructure arrays to be predetermined. Use of resist, e.g., photoresist, can also facilitate such patterning of monolayer arrays.

One general class of embodiments provides methods for patterning a nanostructure monolayer. In the methods, a monolayer of nanostructures disposed on a first layer is provided. Resist is disposed on the monolayer of nanostructures to provide a resist layer, and a predetermined pattern on the resist layer is exposed (e.g. to light, an electron beam, x-rays, etc.), to provide exposed resist in at least a first region of the resist layer and unexposed resist in at least a second region of the resist layer. If a positive resist is utilized, the exposed resist its underlying nanostructures are removed, a then the unexposed resist is removed without removing its underlying nanostructures from the first layer. If instead a negative resist is utilized, the unexposed resist and its underlying nanostructures are removed, and then the exposed resist is removed without removing its underlying nanostructures. Whether positive or negative resist is used, at least one nanostructure monolayer array defined by the first region remains on the first layer. It will be evident that if a positive resist is used, the position of the array corresponds to that of the second region (i.e., the inverse of the first region), while if a negative resist is used, the position of the array corresponds to that of the first region. The boundaries of the nanostructure monolayer array are thus defined by the boundaries of the first region.

The monolayer of nanostructures can be produced by any convenient technique. For example, the first layer can be spin coated with a solution of nanostructures, and any nanostructures which are not in contact with the first layer can then be removed, e.g., by washing. Monolayers can also be formed, e.g., by soaking or dip coating the first layer or by using a commercially available Langmuir-Blodgett device.

The first layer can, but need not, include a coating comprising a nanostructure association group such as those described above, e.g., to increase adherence of the nanostructures to the first layer. Similarly, the nanostructures optionally comprise a ligand such as those described above.

The resist can be disposed (e.g., by spin coating or other techniques known in the art) directly on the monolayer of nanostructures. Alternatively, one or more additional layers can be disposed between the resist and the monolayer. For example, in one class of embodiments, a dielectric layer is disposed on the monolayer of nanostructures, and the resist is disposed on the dielectric layer.

The methods can be used to produce essentially any number of monolayer arrays. For example, when positive resist is used, the unexposed resist can be provided in two or more, 10 or more, 50 or more, 100 or more, 1000 or more, 1×10⁴ or more, 1×10⁶ or more, 1×10⁹ or more, 1×10¹⁰ or more, 1×10¹¹ or more, or 1×10¹² or more discrete second regions of the resist layer, such that two or more, 10 or more, 50 or more, 100 or more, 1000 or more, 1×10⁴ or more, 1×10⁶ or more, 1×10⁹ or more, 1×10¹⁰ or more, 1×10¹¹ or more, or 1×10¹² or more discrete nanostructure monolayer arrays remain on the first layer. Similarly, when negative resist is used, exposed resist can be provided in two or more, 10 or more, 50 or more, 100 or more, 1000 or more, 1×10⁴ or more, 1×10⁶ or more, 1×10⁹ or more, 1×10¹⁰ or more, 1×10¹¹ or more, or 1×10¹² or more discrete first regions of the resist layer, such that a like number of discrete nanostructure monolayer arrays remains on the first layer.

Essentially all of the features noted for the methods above apply to these embodiments as well, as relevant; for example, with respect to composition of the first layer, disposition of the first layer on a substrate, composition of the substrate, incorporation of the array(s) into transistor(s), nanostructure shape and composition, size and density of the array(s), and the like. It is worth noting that the monolayer array (or each of multiple arrays) can comprise an ordered array or a disordered array.

An exemplary embodiment is schematically illustrated in FIG. 4. In this example, first layer 420 (e.g., a 3-4 nm thick layer of SiO₂ or another oxide, nitride, or other nonconductive material) is disposed on substrate 421 (e.g., a Si or other semiconductor substrate). In step 401, monolayer 422 of nanostructures (e.g., Pd quantum dots) is disposed on the first layer. In step 402, control dielectric layer 423 (e.g., an oxide such as SiO₂ or Al₂O₃, an insulating polymer, or another nonconductive material) is disposed on the monolayer. (For example, an Al₂O₃ layer can be disposed by atomic layer deposition, or an SiO₂ layer can be disposed by chemical vapor deposition.) The control dielectric layer is coated with a positive resist in step 403, masked and exposed in step 404, and developed in step 405 to, removed the exposed resist. In steps 406-408, source region 430 and drain region 431, which are separated by channel region 437, are created in substrate 421 by ion implantation (step 406), stripping off the unexposed resist (step 407) and activation (step 408). The control dielectric layer is again coated with positive resist (e.g., polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA)) to form resist layer 432, in step 409. In photolithography step 410, resist in first regions 433 is exposed (e.g., by electron beam or deep UV), while resist in second region 434 is protected by mask 435 and remains unexposed. Exposed resist is removed in step 411 (e.g., developed with an organic solvent), then the portion of the control dielectric layer and first layer and the nanostructures underlying the exposed resist in first region 433 are removed (e.g., by dipping in hydrofluoric acid) in step 412, leaving monolayer array of nanostructures 445. The boundaries of array 445 correspond to those of second region 434, and are therefore defined by those of first region 433. In step 413, a metal layer is disposed to form source electrode 440 and drain electrode 441. In step 414, the unexposed resist is removed without disturbing the control dielectric layer or the nanostructures underlying it (e.g., by contacting the unexposed resist with at least one solvent, e.g., acetone). Gate electrode 442 (e.g., Cr/Au or another suitable material, including, but not limited to, polysilicon, a metal silicide (e.g., nickel silicide or tungsten silicide), ruthenium, or ruthenium oxide) is then disposed on the control dielectric layer in step 415, producing transistor 450.

Another general class of embodiments also provides methods for patterning a nanostructure monolayer. In the methods, a first layer comprising a resist layer disposed thereon is provided. The resist is permitted to remain in at least a first region of the resist layer while the resist is removed from at least a second region of the resist layer. A population of nanostructures is disposed on the resist layer and the first layer; the nanostructures contact the resist in the first region and the first layer in a second region. The resist and its overlying nanostructures are removed from the first region, and any nanostructures which are not in contact with the first layer are removed from the second region, leaving at least one nanostructure monolayer array remaining on the first layer. It will be evident that the position, size, shape, etc. of the array corresponds to that of the second region, and that the number of arrays formed is equal to the number of second regions.

The resist can disposed, exposed, and removed according to lithography techniques well known in the art. Removal of the resist and its overlying nanostructures from the first region and of any nanostructures which are not in contact with the first layer (e.g., in the second region) is optionally accomplished simultaneously, for example, by washing with at least a first solvent.

Essentially all of the features noted for the methods above apply to these embodiments as well, as relevant; for example, with respect to composition of the first layer, coating of the first layer, disposition of the first layer on a substrate, composition of the substrate, incorporation of the array(s) into transistor(s), nanostructure shape and composition, nanostructure ligands, size and density of the array(s), and the like. It is worth noting that the monolayer array (or each of multiple arrays) can comprise an ordered array, or a disordered array.

As noted, devices produced by or useful in practicing the methods of the invention are also a feature of the invention. Thus, another general class of embodiments provides a device comprising a first layer, a monolayer array of nanostructures disposed on the first layer, and resist disposed on the first layer. In one class of embodiments, the resist comprises a resist layer disposed on the monolayer array of nanostructures. See, e.g., device 460 in FIG. 4. In another class of embodiments, the resist occupies a first region of the first layer and the monolayer array of nanostructures occupies a second region of the first layer, adjacent to the first region.

Essentially all of the features noted for the methods above apply to these embodiments as well, as relevant; for example, with respect to composition of the first layer, coating of the first layer, disposition of the first layer on a substrate, composition of the substrate, incorporation of the array(s) into transistor(s), nanostructure shape and composition, nanostructure ligands, size and density of the array(s), and the like. It is worth noting that the monolayer array (or each of multiple arrays) can comprise an ordered array or a disordered array.

Devices for Monolayer Formation

One aspect of the invention provides devices and methods of using the devices for forming nanostructure arrays. Thus, one general class of embodiments provides a device comprising a first layer, a second layer, a cavity between the first and second layers, one or more spacers, and at least, one aperture. The one or more spacers are positioned between the first and second layers and maintain a distance between the first and second layers. The at least one aperture connects the cavity with an exterior atmosphere. The cavity is occupied by a population of nanostructures.

As will be described in greater detail below, the device can be used to form a nanostructure array. In brief, a solution of nanostructures is introduced into the cavity, and the solvent is evaporated from the cavity. As the solvent evaporates, the nanostructures assemble into an array on the first layer. The speed of evaporation can be controlled and slow, such that the nanostructures assemble into an ordered array.

Thus, in one class of embodiments, the nanostructures are dispersed in at least one solvent, while in other embodiments, the nanostructures are substantially free of solvent. The nanostructures optionally comprise an array disposed on the first layer. The array can comprise a disordered array, but in certain embodiments, the array comprises an ordered array. The array preferably comprises a monolayer, e.g., an ordered monolayer such as a hexagonal-close-packed monolayer, but optionally comprises more than a monolayer.

The first and second layers are typically substantially planar and substantially parallel to each other. Suitable materials for the first layer include, but are not limited to, those described above; for example, a dielectric material such as an oxide (e.g., silicon oxide, hafnium oxide, and alumina) or a nitride. The first layer optionally includes a coating comprising a composition that includes a nanostructure association group. Exemplary coating compositions and nanostructure association groups have been described above.

The first layer can be disposed on a substrate. Exemplary substrates have also been described above; for example, a semiconductor substrate can be used if the resulting array of nanostructures is to be incorporated into a transistor or similar device. It will be evident that multiple devices can be disposed on a single substrate and used to simultaneously produce essentially any desired number and/or size of nanostructure arrays at predetermined positions on the substrate (e.g., two or more, 10 or more, 50 or more, 100 or more, 1000 or more, 1×10⁴ or more, 1×10⁶ or more, 1×10⁹ or more, 1×10¹⁰ or more, 1×10¹¹ or more, or 1×10¹² or more arrays).

The second layer and/or the spacer(s) can comprise essentially any suitable material. For example, the second layer and/or the spacer(s) can comprise a metal or a dielectric material (e.g., aluminum, nickel, chromium, molybdenum, ITO, a nitride, or an oxide).

The distance between the first and second layers is greater than an average diameter of the nanostructures. The distance can be about two times the average diameter of the nanostructures or more, although to encourage formation of a monolayer of nanostructures, in certain embodiments, the distance between the first and second layers is less than about two times the average diameter of the nanostructures. For example, for quantum dots having an average diameter of about 3-5 nm, the distance would be less than about 6-10 nm.

The device can be of essentially any desired size and/or shape. In one class of embodiments, the first layer has four edges. The first and second layers are separated by two spacers, which run along two opposite edges of the first layer. Two apertures, which run along the remaining two opposite edges of the first layer, connect the cavity with the exterior atmosphere, e.g., to permit the solvent to escape as it evaporates. It will be evident that a large number of other configurations are possible. As just one additional example, the first layer can have four edges and four corners, with a spacer at each corner and an aperture along each edge, or the device can be circular, irregularly shaped, or the like.

Formation of the nanostructure array can be facilitated by application of an electric field across the cavity (see, e.g., Zhang and Liu (2004) “In situ observation of colloidal monolayer nucleation driven by an alternating electric field” Nature 429:739-743). Thus, in one class of embodiments, the first layer comprises or is disposed on a first conductive material, and the second layer comprises or is disposed on a second conductive material. Conductive materials include, but are not limited to, a metal, a semiconductor, ITO, and the like. Note that the presence of an insulating layer on either or both faces of the cavity (e.g., a dielectric first layer) does not preclude the application of such a field.

The nanostructures can comprise, e.g., short nanorods, substantially spherical nanostructures or quantum dots, and can comprise essentially any desired material. Nanostructures are described in greater detail below in the section entitled “Nanostructures”.

An example embodiment is schematically illustrated in FIG. 5, Panels A-C. In this example, device 501 includes first layer 502, second layer 503, cavity 504 between the first and second layers, and two spacers 505. The spacers are positioned between the first and second layers and maintain distance 506 between them. Two apertures 510 connect cavity 504 with external atmosphere 513. The cavity is occupied by a population of nanostructures 511, which in Panels A and B are dispersed in solvent 512, while in Panel C, they comprise array 515 disposed on the first layer.

As noted, methods using devices of the invention form another feature of the inventions. Thus, one general class of embodiments provides methods for forming a nanostructure array. In the methods, a device comprising a first layer, a second layer, and a cavity between the first and second layers is provided. A solution comprising nanostructures dispersed in at least one solvent is introduced into the cavity. At least a portion of the solvent is evaporated from the cavity, whereby the nanostructures assemble into an array disposed on the first layer.

An exemplary method is schematically illustrated in FIG. 5, which depicts a cavity comprising nanostructures dispersed in a solvent in Panel A. The nanostructures draw together as the solvent evaporates (Panel B) and assemble into an array on the first layer (Panel C). The second layer is removed (Panel D); in this example, the spacers are also removed, leaving the nanostructure array disposed on the first layer.

The array is optionally incorporated into a device, e.g., a memory device; for example, the nanostructure array can comprise the gate area of a flash transistor. It will be evident that the methods can be used to form essentially any number of nanostructure arrays simultaneously, at predetermined positions (e.g., two or more, 10 or more, 50 or more, 100 or more, 1000 or more, 1×10⁴ or more, 1×10⁶ or more, 1×10⁹ or more, 1×10¹⁰ or more, 1×10¹¹ or more, or 1×10¹² or more).

Essentially all of the features noted for the devices above apply to the methods as well, as relevant; for example, with respect to configuration of the device; composition of the first layer and/or spacers; type of nanostructures; configuration of the resulting array; and/or the like.

The device can be fabricated, e.g., using conventional lithographic, MEMS, and/or integrated circuit techniques. In one aspect, providing the device includes disposing a third layer on the first layer, disposing the second layer on the third layer, and removing at least a portion of the third layer, whereby the cavity between the first and second layers is formed. The third layer or portion thereof can be removed, e.g., by etching away the third layer with an etchant, e.g., an anisotropic etchant. For example, the third layer can comprise polysilicon (i.e., polycrystalline silicon), amorphous silicon, molybdenum or titanium, and the etchant can comprise XeF₂.

It will be evident that the thickness of the third layer which is removed defines the height of the resulting cavity between the first and second layers. Thus, the third layer has a thickness that is greater than an average diameter of the nanostructures. The third layer can have a thickness of about two times the average diameter of the nanostructures or more, although to encourage formation of a monolayer of nanostructures, in certain embodiments, the third layer has a thickness that is less than about two times the average diameter of the nanostructures.

The first and second layers are typically separated by one or more spacers, which maintain the distance between the first and second layers when the third layer is removed. As noted, the resulting device can be of essentially any size and/or shape, so a large number of configurations for the first, second, and third layers and the spacers are possible. For example, in one class of embodiments, the first layer has four edges. The first and second layers are separated by two spacers, which run along two opposite edges of the first layer. The resulting device thus has two apertures running along the remaining two opposite ages. Alternatively, the device can have more or fewer spacers, spacers at corners instead of edges, can be circular or irregular in shape, and the like.

An exemplary method for providing a device is schematically illustrated in FIG. 6 Panel A. In this example, a relatively thick layer 610 comprising, e.g., the same material as the desired first layer (e.g., SiO₂ or another dielectric material) disposed on substrate 611 (e.g., a Si or other semiconductor substrate) is provided. In step 601, layer 610 is masked and stripes are etched into it. In step 602, a thin layer of material is disposed to form first layer 612. In step 603, third layer 613 is disposed on first layer 612 (e.g., a polysilicon third layer can be disposed by chemical vapor deposition). In step 604, second layer 614 is disposed on third layer 613 (e.g., a thin metal second layer can be evaporated onto the third layer). The thick, remaining portions of layer 610 comprise spacers 615. In step 605, the third layer is etched away to leave cavities 616 in device 620. In this example, two devices are fabricated simultaneously on the same substrate.

Another exemplary method for providing a device is schematically illustrated in FIG. 6 Panel B. In this example, thin first layer 660 is provided on substrate 661. In step 651, third layer 662 is disposed on first layer 660. In step 652, third layer 662 is masked and stripes are etched in it. In step 653, metal is deposited to form second layer 665 and spacers 666. The device is optionally masked and etched in stripes perpendicular to those previously formed, to provide free edges for an etchant to access the third layer on opposite sides. In step 654, the third layer is etched away to leave cavities 670 in device 671. Again, in this example, two devices are fabricated simultaneously on the same substrate.

The first layer optionally comprises a coating comprising a composition including a nanostructure association group. Thus, the methods optionally include coating the first layer with a composition comprising a nanostructure association group, prior to disposing the third layer on the first layer. Exemplary coating compositions and nanostructure association groups have been described above.

Nanostructures can be conveniently introduced into the cavity by, e.g., capillary action. In one class of embodiments, the solution of nanostructures is introduced into the cavity by immersing the device in an excess of the solution, permitting the solution to be drawn into the cavity by capillary action, and removing the device from the excess of the solution.

Part or substantially all the solvent is evaporated. A rate of evaporation of the solvent can be controlled, e.g., to control array formation. For example, slow evaporation of the solvent gradually increases the concentration of nanostructures, which can be conducive to formation of an ordered array of nanostructures, e.g., an ordered monolayer such as a hexagonal-close-packed monolayer.

The process of solvent evaporation can create lateral motion of the nanostructures, which can contribute to formation of an ordered array. Additional motion of the nanostructures can be encouraged, e.g., by applying an AC voltage across the cavity after introducing the solution into the cavity (e.g., prior to or simultaneous with evaporation of the solvent). See Zhang and Liu (supra), which indicates that an AC voltage can generate eddy currents in the solution that give rise to lateral motion of the nanostructures, contributing to formation of an ordered array (e.g., a hexagonal-close-packed monolayer).

When evaporation and array formation have proceeded as far as desired, the second layer is removed. Optionally, any extraneous nanostructures (e.g., any nanostructures greater than a monolayer) and/or any remaining solvent can also be removed, e.g., by washing. The second layer can, for example, be etched away, or the spacers can be etched away and the second layer lifted off, e.g., by washing with a solvent, without disturbing the nanostructure array. Similarly, a layer of resist can be disposed on the spacers under the second layer, or under the spacers on the first layer, to facilitate lifting off the second layer by soaking in a suitable solvent.

Another general class of embodiments provides a device including a solid support comprising at least one vertical discontinuity on its surface. The discontinuity comprises a protrusion from the surface or an indentation in the surface. The protrusion or indentation is at a predetermined position on the solid support. The device also includes a population of nanostructures disposed on the protrusion or in the indentation.

As will be described in greater detail below, the device can be used to form a nanostructure array. In brief, a solution of nanostructures is deposited on the solid support, and the solvent is evaporated. As the solvent evaporates, the nanostructures assemble into an array on the protrusion or in the indentation. The speed of evaporation can be controlled and slow, such that the nanostructures assemble into an ordered array.

Thus, in one class of embodiments, the nanostructures are dispersed in at least one solvent, while in other embodiments, the nanostructures are substantially free of solvent. The nanostructures optionally comprise an array disposed on the protrusion or in the indentation. The array can comprise a disordered array, but in certain embodiments, the array comprises an ordered array. The array preferably comprises a monolayer, e.g., an ordered monolayer such as a hexagonal-close-packed monolayer, but optionally comprises more than a monolayer.

In a preferred class of embodiments, the solid support comprises a first layer. The solid support optionally also includes a substrate on which the first layer is disposed. In one class of embodiments, the first layer includes a coating comprising a composition comprising a nanostructure association group. Exemplary materials for the first layer and substrate, and exemplary coating compositions and nanostructure association groups, have been described above. Essentially all of the features noted in the embodiments above apply these embodiments as well, as relevant; for example, with respect to type of nanostructures (e.g., short nanorods, substantially spherical nanostructures, quantum dots, or the like).

It will be evident that a single solid support can comprise multiple devices, which can be used to simultaneously produce essentially any desired number and/or size of nanostructure arrays at predetermined positions on the solid support (e.g., on a substrate comprising the support, e.g., two or more, 10 or more, 50 or more, 100 or more, 1000 or more, 1×10⁴ or more, 1×10⁶ or more, 1×10⁹ or more, 1×10¹⁰ or more, 1×10¹¹ or more, or 1×10¹² or more arrays).

Exemplary embodiments are schematically illustrated in FIG. 7, Panels Letter A-C. In one example, device 701 comprises solid support 702, which includes first layer 708 and substrate 709. Surface 703 of solid support 702 includes a plurality of vertical discontinuities 704, which comprise protrusions 705 from the surface (Panels A-B). Panel B also illustrates a population of nanostructures 710, dispersed in solvent 711 or in array 713, disposed on protrusions 705. In a second example, device 751 (Panel C) comprises solid support 752, which includes first layer 758 and substrate 759. Surface 753 of solid support 752 includes a plurality of vertical discontinuities 754, which comprise indentations 755 in the surface.

The devices can be fabricated, e.g. using conventional lithographic, MEMS, and/or integrated circuit techniques, e.g., by masking and etching the first layer.

As noted, methods using devices of the invention form another feature of the invention. Thus, one general class of embodiments provides methods for forming a nanostructure array. In the methods, a solid support comprising at least one vertical discontinuity on its surface is provided. The discontinuity comprises a protrusion from the surface or an indentation in the surface, and the protrusion or indentation is at a predetermined position on the solid support. A solution comprising nanostructures dispersed in at least one solvent is deposited on the solid support. At least a portion of the solvent is evaporated, whereby the nanostructures assemble into an array disposed on the protrusion or in the indentation.

An exemplary method is schematically illustrated in FIG. 7 Panel B. In step 721, a solution of nanostructures 710 in solvent 711 is deposited on solid support 702, which includes protrusions 705 from surface 703. As the solvent evaporates, the concentration of nanostructures increases. The solvent eventually de-wets the surface in some areas, clinging to the protrusions and de-wetting in the space between the protrusions. Convection currents within the now-isolated droplets of solvent can provide lateral mobility to the nanostructures, facilitating their self assembly. Eventually, as evaporation proceeds, solvent surface tension results in a droplet of solvent remaining on top of the protrusion (step 722). Substantially all of the solvent can be evaporated away, or evaporation can be halted once assembly of the nanostructures has reached the desired stage. Removal of any remaining solvent, and optionally of any nanostructures greater than a monolayer and/or any nanostructures left in between the protrusions, leaves array 713 of nanostructures disposed on the protrusion (step 723).

The array is optionally, incorporated into a device, e.g., a memory device; for example, the nanostructure array can comprise the gate area of a flash transistor. It will be evident that the methods can be used to form essentially any number of nanostructure arrays simultaneously, at predetermined positions, e.g., two or more, 10 or more, 50 or more, 100 or more, 1000 or more, 1×10⁴ or more, 1×10⁶ or more, 1×10⁹ or more, 1×10¹⁰ or more, 1×10¹¹ or more, or 1×10¹² or more arrays.

Essentially all of the features noted for the devices above apply to the methods as well, as relevant; for example, with respect to configuration of the device, type of nanostructures, configuration of the resulting array, and/or the like.

In a preferred class of embodiments, the solid support comprises a first layer. The solid support optionally also includes a substrate on which the first layer is disposed. The first layer optionally comprises a coating comprising a composition including a nanostructure association group. Thus, the methods optionally include coating the first layer with a composition comprising a nanostructure association group, prior to depositing the solution on the first layer. Exemplary materials for the first layer and substrate, and exemplary coating compositions and nanostructure association groups, have been described above.

The solution containing the nanostructures can be deposited on the solid support by any of a variety of techniques, including, for example, spin-coating the solution on the solid support, dip-coating the solution on the solid support, soaking the solid support in an excess of the solution, or spray coating the solid support with the solution.

Part or substantially all the solvent is evaporated. A rate of evaporation of the solvent can be controlled, e.g., to control array formation. For example, slow evaporation of the solvent gradually increases the concentration of nanostructures, which can be conducive to formation of an ordered array of nanostructures, e.g., an ordered monolayer such as a hexagonal-close-packed monolayer.

Devices Including Nanostructure Arrays

The methods and devices described above can be used to produce nanostructure arrays at predetermined positions, and these arrays can be incorporated into devices such as memory devices, LEDs, and the like. Thus, in one aspect, the invention provides devices including nanostructure arrays, including arrays of predetermined location and/or size.

One general class of embodiments provides a device that includes a substrate and two or more nanostructure arrays disposed on the substrate. Each nanostructure array is disposed at a predetermined position on the substrate. As noted, the device is optionally produced by a method of the invention; exemplary devices are schematically illustrated in FIG. 1 (device 101) and FIG. 2 (device 201).

The substrate can comprise essentially any desired material, depending, e.g., on the desired use of the nanostructure arrays. Suitable substrates include, but are not limited to: a semiconductor; a uniform substrate, e.g., a wafer of solid material, such as silicon or other semiconductor material, glass, quartz, polymerics, etc.; a large rigid sheet of solid material, e.g., glass, quartz, plastics such as polycarbonate, polystyrene, etc.; a flexible substrate, such as a roll of plastic such as polyolefin, polyamide, and others; or a transparent substrate. Combinations of these features can be employed. The substrate optionally includes other compositional or structural elements that are part of an ultimately desired device. Particular examples of such elements include electrical circuit elements such as electrical contacts, other wires or conductive paths, including nallowires or other nanoscale conducting elements, optical and/or optoelectrical elements (e.g., lasers, LEDs, etc.), and structural elements (e.g., microcantilevers, pits, wells, posts, etc.).

The nanostructures can, but need not be, in physical contact with the substrate. Thus, in one class of embodiments, a first layer is disposed between the nanostructure arrays and the substrate. Exemplary materials for the first layer have been described above. The first layer optionally includes a coating comprising a composition including a nanostructure association group; exemplary compositions and nanostructure association groups have likewise been described above.

In one class of embodiments, the first layer comprises a dielectric material and has a thickness of between 1 nm and about 10 nm, e.g., between 3 and 4 nm. The first layer can serve as a tunnel dielectric layer in embodiments in which the nanostructure arrays are incorporated into flash transistors or memory devices, for example. Thus, in some embodiments, for each monolayer array of nanostructures, the substrate comprises a source region, a drain region, and a channel region between the source and drain regions and underlying the monolayer array of nanostructures; a control dielectric layer is disposed on each monolayer array of nanostructures; and a gate electrode is disposed on each control dielectric layer.

The device can include essentially any number of nanostructure arrays, for example, 10 or more, 50 or more, 100 or more, 1000 or more, 1×10⁴ or more, 1×10⁶ or more, 1×10⁹ or more, 1×10¹⁰ or more, 1×10¹¹ or more, or 1×10¹² or more nanostructure arrays. Similarly, the arrays can be of essentially any desired size and/or shape. For example, each nanostructure array can have an area of about 10⁴ μm² or less, about 10³ μm² or less, about 10² μm² or less, about 10 μm² or less, about 1 μm² or less, about 10⁵ nm² or less, about 10⁴ nm² or less, or even about 4225 nm² or less, about 2025 nm² or less, about 1225 nm² or less, about 625 nm² or less, or about 324 nm² or less. Each nanostructure array optionally has dimensions of about 45×45 nm or less, about 35×35 nm or less, about 25×25 nm or less, or about 18×18 nm or less.

In one aspect, each nanostructure array comprises an ordered array and/or a monolayer, e.g., a hexagonal-close-packed monolayer. For many applications, however, ordered arrays are not required. For example, for arrays for use in memory devices, the nanostructures need not be ordered in the arrays as long as they achieve sufficient density in disordered arrays. Thus, in another aspect, each nanostructure array comprises a disordered array, e.g., a disordered monolayer array.

In one class of embodiments, the arrays have a high density of nanostructures. For example, each nanostructure array optionally has a density greater than about 1×10¹⁰ nanostructures/cm², greater than about 1×10¹¹ nanostructures/cm², greater than about 1×10¹² nanostructures/cm², or even greater than about 1×10¹³ nanostructures/cm².

It will be evident that essentially any of the features described herein apply in any relevant combination; for example, a device having two or more disordered monolayer arrays, each with a density of greater than about 1×10¹¹ nanostructures/cm², disposed at predetermined positions on a substrate is a feature of the invention.

In one class of embodiments, the nanostructures comprise substantially spherical nanostructures or quantum dots. The nanostructures can comprise essentially any desired material, chosen, e.g., based on the desired application. For example, the nanostructures can comprise a conductive material, a nonconductive material, a semiconductor, and/or the like. In one aspect, the nanostructures comprising the arrays have a work function of about 4.5 eV or higher. Such nanostructures are useful, for example, in fabrication of memory devices, where if the work function of the nanostructures is not sufficiently high, electrons stored in the nanostructures tend to travel back across the tunnel dielectric layer, resulting in, memory loss. Thus, the nanostructures (e.g., the substantially spherical nanostructures or quantum dots) optionally comprise-materials such as palladium (Pd), iridium (Ir), nickel (Ni), platinum (Pt), gold (Au), ruthenium (Ru), cobalt (Co), tungsten (W), tellurium (Te), iron platinum alloy (FePt), or the like. The nanostructures comprising the arrays are typically preformed, that is, synthesized prior to their incorporation in the array. For example, in one aspect, the nanostructures are colloidal nanostructures. In one class of embodiments, each of the nanostructures comprising the arrays comprises a coating comprising a ligand associated with a surface of the nanostructure, e.g., a silsesquioxane ligand such as those described in U.S. patent application 60/632,570 (supra) or illustrated in FIG. 3. In a related class of embodiments, the nanostructures comprising the arrays are encompassed by SiO₂ or other insulating shells, produced, e.g., from a silsesquioxane coating (see U.S. patent application Ser. No. 60/632,570). Such ligands or shells optionally control spacing between adjacent nanostructures in the arrays. Nanostructures are described in greater detail below in the section entitled “Nanostructures”.

Use of nanostructures as storage elements in memory devices facilitates creation of nodes smaller than those accessible by conventional integrated circuit fabrication techniques. Thus, another general class of embodiments provides a memory device that includes at least one transistor (e.g., a MOSFET) comprising a gate area which is occupied by a monolayer array of nanostructures and which has a area of 8100 nm² or less. The gate area optionally ha an area of about 4225 nm² or less, about 2025 nm² or less, about 1225 nm² or less, about 625 nm² or less, or even about 324 nm² or less. The gate area optionally has dimensions of about 65×65 nm or less, about 45×45 nm or less, about 35×35 nm or less, about 25×25 nm or less, or about 18×18 nm or less.

The device can include essentially any number of such transistors. For example, the memory device can include two or more, 10 or more, 50 or more, 100 or more, 1000 or more, 1×10⁴ or more, 1×10⁶ or more, 1×10⁹ or more, 1×10¹⁰ or more, 1×10¹¹ or more, or 1×10¹² or more transistors.

Essentially all of the features noted for the embodiments above apply to this embodiment as well, as relevant. For example, the nanostructures comprising the monolayer array optionally comprise substantially spherical nanostructures or quantum dots, have a work function of about 4.5 eV or higher, are preformed (e.g., colloidal), and/or are encompassed by SiO₂ or other insulating shells. Similarly, the monolayer array can comprise an ordered array (e.g., a hexagonal-close-packed monolayer) or a disordered array. The monolayer array (whether ordered or disordered) optionally has a density greater than about 1×10¹⁰ nanostructures/cm², greater than about 1×10¹¹ nanostructures/cm², greater than about 1×10¹² nanostructures/cm², or greater than about 1×10¹³ nanostructures/cm².

One exemplary embodiment is schematically illustrated in FIG. 4, in which memory device/transistor 450 includes monolayer array 445 of nanostructures occupying gate area 449.

Additional details of nanostructure-based memory devices, transistors, and the like can be found, e.g., in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/018,572 by Xiangfeng Duan et al. entitled “Nano-enabled memory devices and anisotropic charge carrying arrays”, filed Dec. 21, 2004.

Nanostructures

The individual nanostructures employed in the methods and devices include, but are not limited to, a nanocrystal, a quantum dot, a nanodot, a nanoparticle, a nanowire, a nanorod, a nanotube, a nanotetrapod, a tripod, a bipod, a branched nanocrystal, or a branched tetrapod. In one aspect, the methods and devices include spherical, nearly spherical, and/or isotropic nanocrystals such as nanodots and/or quantum dots, e.g., substantially spherical nanocrystals or quantum dots having an average diameter less than about 10 nm, and optionally less than about 8 nm, 6 nm, 5 nm, or 4 nm.

The nanostructures employed in the methods and devices of the present invention can be fabricated from essentially any convenient materials. For example, the nanocrystals can comprise inorganic materials, e.g., a metal, including, e.g., Pd, Ir, Ni, Pt, Au, Ru, Co, W, Te, Ag, Ti, Sn, Zn, Fe, FePt, or the like, or a semiconducting material selected from a variety of Group II-VI, Group III-V, or Group IV semiconductors, and including, e.g., a material comprising a first element selected from Group II of the periodic table and a second element selected from Group VI (e.g., ZnS, ZnO, ZnSe, ZnTe, CdS, CdSe, CdTe, HgS, HgSe, HgTe, MgS, MgSe, MgTe, CaS, CaSe, CaTe, SrS, SrSe, SrTe, BaS, BaSe, BaTe, and like materials); a material comprising a first element selected from Group III and a second element selected from Group V (e.g., GaN, GaP, GaAs, GaSb, InN, InP, InAs, InSb, and like materials); a material comprising a Group IV element (Ge, Si, and like materials); a material such as PbS, PbSe, PbTe, AlS, AlP, and AlSb; or an alloy or a mixture thereof. The nanostructures can include a p- or n-doped semiconductor. In other embodiments, the nanostructures can include an insulating material (e.g., a metal oxide), a polymer, an organic material (e.g., carbon), and/or the like.

In one aspect, the nanostructures are preformed, i.e., fabricated prior to their use in the methods or incorporation into the devices. For example, the nanostructures can be colloidal nanostructures. Synthesis of colloidal metal nanostructures (e.g., Pd, Pt, and Ni nanostructures) is described in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 60/637,409, filed Dec. 16, 2004, by Jeffery A. Whiteford, et al. entitled “Process for group can metal nanostructure synthesis and compositions made using same.” Synthesis of colloidal III-V semiconductor nanostructures is described in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 60/628,455, filed Nov. 15, 2004, by Erik C. Scher, et al. entitled “Process for group III-V semiconductor nanostructure synthesis and compositions made using same.” Additional details of nanostructure synthesis have been described in the literature (see, e.g., the following references).

Nanostructures can be fabricated and their size can be controlled by any of a number of convenient methods that can be adapted to different materials. For example, synthesis of nanocrystals of various composition is described in, e.g., Peng et al. (2000) “Shape control of CdSe nanocrystals” Nature 404, 59-61; Puntes et al. (2001) “Colloidal nanocrystal shape and size control: The case of cobalt” Science 291, 2115-2117; U.S. Pat. No. 6,306,736 to Alivisatos et al. (Oct. 23, 2001) entitled “Process for forming shaped group III-V semiconductor nanocrystals, and product formed using process”; U.S. Pat. No. 6,225,198 to Alivisatos et al. (May 1, 2001) entitled “Process for forming shaped group II-VI semiconductor nanocrystals, and product formed using process”; U.S. Pat. No. 5,505,928 to Alivisatos et al. (Apr. 9, 1996) entitled “Preparation of III-V semiconductor nanocrystals”; U.S. Pat. No. 5,751,018 to Alivisatos et al. (May 12, 1998) entitled “Semiconductor nanocrystals covalently bound to solid inorganic surfaces using self-assembled monolayers”; U.S. Pat. No. 6,048,616 to Gallagher et al. (Apr. 11, 2000) entitled “Encapsulated quantum sized doped semiconductor particles and method of manufacturing same”; and U.S. Pat. No. 5,990,479 to Weiss et al. (Nov. 23, 1999) entitled “Organo luminescent semiconductor nanocrystal probes for biological applications and process for making and using such probes.”

Growth of nanowires having various aspect ratios, including nanowires with controlled diameters, is described in, e.g., Gudiksen et al (2000) “Diameter-selective synthesis of semiconductor nanowires” J. Am. Chem. Soc. 122, 8801-8802; Cui et al. (2001) “Diameter-controlled synthesis of single-crystal silicon nanowires” Appl. Phys. Lett. 78, 2214-2216; Gudiksen et al. (2001) “Synthetic control of the diameter and length of single crystal semiconductor nanowires” J. Phys. Chem. B 105, 4062-4064; Morales et al. (1998) “A laser ablation method for the synthesis of crystalline semiconductor nanowires” Science 279, 208-211; Duan et al. (2000) “General synthesis of compound semiconductor nanowires” Adv. Mater. 12, 298-302; Cui et al. (2000) “Doping and electrical transport in silicon nanowires” J. Phys. Chem. B 104, 5213-5216; Peng et al. (2000) “Shape control of CdSe nanocrystals” Nature 404, 59-61; Puntes et al. (2001) “Colloidal nanocrystal shape and size control: The case of cobalt” Science 291, 2115-2117; U.S. Pat. No. 6,306,736 to Alivisatos et al. (Oct. 23, 2001) entitled “Process for forming shaped group III-V semiconductor nanocrystals, and product formed using process”; U.S. Pat. No. 6,225,198 to Alivisatos et al. (May 1, 2001) entitled “Process for forming shaped group II-VI semiconductor nanocrystals, and product formed using process”; U.S. Pat. No. 6,036,774 to Lieber et al. (Mar. 14, 2000) entitled “Method of producing metal oxide nanorods”; U.S. Pat. No. 5,897,945 to Lieber et al. (Apr. 27, 1999) entitled “Metal oxide nanorods”; U.S. Pat. No. 5,997,832 to Lieber et al. (Dec. 7, 1999) “Preparation of carbide nanorods”; Urbau et al. (2002) “Synthesis of single-crystalline perovskite nanowires composed of barium titanate and strontium titanate” J. Am. Chem. Soc., 124, 1186; and Yuin et al. (2002) “Ferroelectric Properties of Individual Barium Titanate Nanowires Investigated by Scanned Probe Microscopy” Nanoletters 2, 447.

Growth of branched nanowires (e.g., nanotetrapods, tripods, bipods, and branched tetrapods) is described in, e.g., Jun et al. (2001) “Controlled synthesis of multi-armed CdS nanorod architectures using monosurfactant system” J. Am. Chem. Soc. 123, 5150-5151; and Manna et al. (2000) “Synthesis of Soluble and Processable Rod-, Arrow-, Teardrop-, and Tetrapod-Shaped CdSe Nanocrystals” J. Am. Chem. Soc. 122, 12700-12706.

Synthesis of nanoparticles is described in, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 5,690,807 to Clark Jr. et al. (Nov. 25, 1997) entitled “Method for producing semiconductor particles”; U.S. Pat. No. 6,136,156 to El-Shall, et al. (Oct. 24, 2000) entitled “Nanoparticles of silicon oxide alloys”; U.S. Pat. No. 6,413,489 to Ying et al. (Jul. 2, 2002) entitled “Synthesis of nanometer-sized particles by reverse micelle mediated techniques”; and Liu et al. (2001) “Sol-Gel Synthesis of Free-Standing Ferroelectric Lead Zirconate Titanate Nanoparticles” J. Am. Chem. Soc. 123, 4344.

The nanostructures optionally comprise a core-shell architecture. Synthesis of core-shell nanostructure heterostructures, namely nanocrystal and nanowire (e.g., nanorod) core-shell heterostructures, are described in, e.g., Peng et al. (1997) “Epitaxial growth of highly luminescent CdSe/CdS core/shell nanocrystals with photostability and electronic accessibility” J. Am. Chem. Soc. 119, 7019-7029; Dabbousi et al. (1997) “(CdSe)ZnS core-shell quantum dots: Synthesis and characterization of a size series of highly luminescent nanocrysallites” J. Phys. Chem. B 101, 9463-9475; Manna et al. (2002) “Epitaxial growth and photochemical annealing of graded CdS/ZnS shells on colloidal CdSe nanorods” J. Am. Chem. Soc. 124, 7136-7145; and Cao et al. (2000) “Growth and properties of semiconductor core/shell nanocrystals with IrAs cores” J. Am. Chem. Soc. 122, 9692-9702. Similar approaches can be applied to growth of other core-shell nanostructures.

Growth of nanowire heterostructures in which the different materials are distributed at different locations along the long axis of the nanowire is described in, e.g., Gudiksen et al. (2002) “Growth of nanowire superlattice structures for nanoscale photonics and electronics” Nature 415, 617-620; Bjork et al. (2002) “One-dimensional steeplechase for electrons realized” Nano Letters 2, 86-90; Wu et al. (2002) “Block-by-block growth of single-crystalline Si/SiGe superlattice nanowires” Nano Letters 2, 83-86; and U.S. patent application 60/370,095 (Apr. 2, 2002) to Empedocles entitled “Nanowire heterostructures for encoding information.” Similar approaches can be applied to growth of other heterostructures.

In certain embodiments, the collection or population of nanostructures is substantially monodisperse in size and/or shape. See, e.g., US patent application 20020071952 by Bawendi et al entitled “Preparation of nanocrystallites.”

Silsesquioxane and other ligand coatings for nanostructures, SiO₂ shells, and oxidation of metal nanostructures is described in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 60/632,570 (supra).

While the foregoing invention has been described in some detail for purposes of clarity and understanding, it will be clear to one skilled in the art from a reading of this disclosure that various changes in form and detail can be made without departing from the true scope of the invention. For example, all the techniques and apparatus described above can be used in various combinations. All publications, patents, patent applications, and/or other documents cited in this application are incorporated by reference in their entirety for all purposes to the same extent as if each individual publication, patent, patent application, and/or other document were individually indicated to be incorporated by reference for all purposes. 

1. A device comprising: a first layer, a second layer, a cavity between the first and second layers, one or more spacers, and at least one aperture; wherein the one or more spacers are positioned between the first and second layers and maintain a distance between the first and second layers; wherein the at least one aperture connects the cavity with an exterior atmosphere; wherein the cavity is occupied by a population of nanostructures; and wherein the first layer comprises a coating, which coating comprises a composition comprising a nanostructure association group.
 2. The device of claim 1, wherein the nanostructures are dispersed in at least one solvent.
 3. The device of claim 1, wherein the nanostructures are substantially free of solvent.
 4. The device of claim 1, wherein the nanostructures comprise an array disposed on the first layer.
 5. The device of claim 4, wherein the array comprises an ordered array.
 6. The device of claim 4, wherein the array comprises a monolayer.
 7. The device of claim 6, wherein the array comprises a hexagonal-close-packed monolayer.
 8. The device of claim 4, wherein the array comprises a disordered array.
 9. The device of claim 1, wherein the first layer is substantially planar, the second layer is substantially planar, and the first and second layers are substantially parallel to each other.
 10. The device of claim 1, wherein the first layer comprises a material selected from the group consisting of: a dielectric material, an oxide, a nitride, silicon oxide, hafnium oxide, and alumina.
 11. The device of claim 1, wherein the first layer is disposed on a substrate.
 12. The device of claim 1, wherein the second layer comprises a metal or a dielectric material.
 13. The device of claim 1, wherein the first layer has four edges; wherein the first and second layers are separated by two spacers, which spacers run along two opposite edges of the first layer; and wherein two apertures connect the cavity with the exterior atmosphere, which apertures run along the remaining two opposite edges of the first layer.
 14. The device of claim 1, wherein the nanostructures comprise substantially spherical nanostructures or quantum dots.
 15. The device of claim 1, wherein the first layer comprises or is disposed on a first conductive material and wherein the second layer comprises or is disposed on a second conductive material.
 16. A device comprising: a first layer, a second layer, a cavity between the first and second layers, one or more spacers, and at least one aperture; wherein the one or more spacers are positioned between the first and second layers and maintain a distance between the first and second layers; wherein the at least one aperture connects the cavity with an exterior atmosphere; wherein the cavity is occupied by a population of nanostructures; and wherein the distance between the first and second layers is is greater than an average diameter of the nanostructures and less than about two times the average diameter of the nanostructures.
 17. A device comprising: a solid support comprising a first layer and at least one vertical discontinuity on its surface, which discontinuity comprises a protrusion from the surface or an indentation in the surface, which protrusion or indentation is at a predetermined position on the solid support; a population of nanostructures disposed on the protrusion or in the indentation; and wherein the first layer comprises a coating, which coating comprises a composition comprising a nanostructure association group.
 18. The device of claim 17, wherein the nanostructures are dispersed in at least one solvent.
 19. The device of claim 17, wherein the nanostructures are substantially free of solvent.
 20. The device of claim 17, wherein the nanostructures comprise an array disposed on the protrusion or in the indentation.
 21. The device of claim 20, wherein the array comprises an ordered array.
 22. The device of claim 20, wherein the array comprises a monolayer.
 23. The device of claim 22, wherein the array comprises a hexagonal-close-packed monolayer.
 24. The device of claim 20, wherein the array comprises a disordered array.
 25. The device of claim 17, wherein the first layer comprises a material selected from the group consisting of: a dielectric material, an oxide, a nitride, silicon oxide, hafnium oxide, and alumina.
 26. The device of claim 17, wherein the solid support comprises a substrate on which the first layer is disposed.
 27. The device of claim 17, wherein the nanostructures comprise substantially spherical nanostructures or quantum dots.
 28. A device comprising: a substrate; two or more nanostructure arrays disposed on the substrate, wherein each nanostructure array is disposed at a predetermined position on the substrate; and wherein each of the nanostructures comprising the arrays comprises a coating comprising a ligand associated with a surface of the nanostructure.
 29. The device of claim 28, wherein the substrate comprises a quartz substrate or a silicon wafer or a portion thereof.
 30. The device of claim 28, wherein the substrate comprises a semiconductor.
 31. The device of claim 30, wherein a first layer is disposed between the nanostructure arrays and the substrate.
 32. The device of claim 31, wherein the first layer comprises a dielectric material and has a thickness of between about 1 nm and about 10 nm.
 33. The device of claim 32, wherein, for each monolayer array of nanostructures, the substrate comprises a source region, a drain region, and a channel region between the source and drain regions and underlying the monolayer array of nanostructures; wherein a control dielectric layer is disposed on each monolayer array of nanostructures; and wherein a gate electrode is disposed on each control dielectric layer.
 34. The device of claim 28, wherein each nanostructure array comprises a monolayer.
 35. The device of claim 34, wherein each nanostructure array comprises a hexagonal-close-packed monolayer.
 36. The device of claim 28, wherein each nanostructure array comprises a disordered array.
 37. The device of claim 28, wherein each nanostructure array has a density greater than about 1×10¹⁰ nanostructures/cm², greater than about 1×10¹¹ nanostructures/cm², greater than about 1×10¹² nanostructures/cm², or greater than about 1×10¹³ nanostructures/cm².
 38. The device of claim 28, wherein each nanostructure array has an area of about 2025 nm² or less, about 1225 nm² or less, about 625 nm² or less, or about 324 nm² or less.
 39. The device of claim 38, wherein each nanostructure array has dimensions of about 45×45 nm or less, about 35×35 nm or less, about 25×25 nm or less, or about 18×18 nm or less.
 40. The device of claim 28, wherein the two or more nanostructure arrays disposed on the substrate comprise 10 or more, 50 or more, 100 or more, 1000 or more, 1×10⁴ or more, 1×10⁶ or more, 1×10⁹ or more, or 1×10¹² or more nanostructure arrays.
 41. The device of claim 28, wherein the nanostructures comprising the arrays comprise substantially spherical nanostructures or quantum dots.
 42. The device of claim 28, wherein the nanostructures comprising the arrays have a work function of about 4.5 eV or higher.
 43. The device of claim 28, wherein the nanostructures comprising the arrays are preformed.
 44. The device of claim 28, wherein the nanostructures comprising the arrays are encompassed by SiO₂ shells.
 45. The device of claim 28, wherein each nanostructure array comprises an ordered array.
 46. A device comprising: a solid support comprising a first layer and at least one vertical discontinuity on its surface, which discontinuity comprises a protrusion from the surface or an indentation in the surface, which protrusion or indentation is at a predetermined position on the solid support; a population of nanostructures disposed on the protrusion or in the indentation; wherein the solid support comprises a plurality of protrusions from the surface or a plurality of indentations in the surface, which protrusions or indentations are at predetermined positions on the solid support; and wherein the nanostructures are dispersed in at least one solvent, and wherein the nanostructures and the solvent are distributed over the entire surface of the solid support.
 47. The device of claim 46, wherein the nanostructures comprise a plurality of arrays disposed on the plurality of protrusions or in the plurality of indentations.
 48. The device of claim 47, wherein the surface between the protrusions or indentations is substantially free of nanostructures. 